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SENĆOŦEN: A Grammar of the Saanich Language Main Menu Contents Preface Acknowledgments PART 1 Introduction The organization of this grammar The Place of SENĆOŦEN in the Salishan Language Family Basics of the SENĆOŦEN word Useful phrases PART 2 The SENĆOŦEN Alphabet and Sounds Consonants Vowels and Diphthongs Notes on Pronunciation PART 3 SENĆOŦEN Grammatical Patterns 1 Transitive and Intransitive Verbs 2 Past and Future Tense 3 Basic Speech Acts 4 Nouns and Articles 5 Possessive Pronouns 6 Adjectives 7 Basic Word Order 8 The Preposition 9 Serial Verbs 10 Auxiliaries 11 Conjunction: ‘And/with’ and ‘but/without’ 12 No and Not 13 Self and Each Other 14 More Negative Words 15 Questions: ‘Who?,’ ‘What?,’ ‘Someone,’ ‘Something’ 16 Questions: ‘Do what?,’ ‘Say what?,’ and ‘Which one?’ 17 Subordinate Subjects in Questions 18 Questions: ‘Whose?’ 19 Every, All, Any, and Some 20 Comparison 21 Questions: ‘When?’ 22 Numbers 23 Time Expressions 24 Time Prefixes 25 Questions: ‘Where?’ 26 Location Expressions 27 Paths 28 Questions: ‘How?’ and ‘How much?’ 29 Adverbial Expressions 30 Conditional Clauses 31 Should, Must, Ought to, Want to 32 Object Pronouns 33 Passive 34 Strong, Weak, and Zero Stems 35 Participant Roles and Middle Voice 36 Recipient, Beneficiary, and Other Participants 37 Lexical Suffixes 38 Questions: ‘Why?’ 39 Because 41 Collective Plural 42 The Actual Aspect 43 State, Result, and Duration 44 Activity Suffixes 45 Reflexive, Inchoative, and Noncontrol Middle 46 Ȼ Clauses 47 Relative Clauses 48 Speech Act Modifiers 49 Possessed Verbs 50 Summary of Particles with Ȼ 51 So Then ... 52 Reporting Verbs and Direct Quotes 53 Indirect Quotes 54 Verbal Prefixes 55 Nominalizing Prefixes 56 Adverbial Prefixes 57 More Demonstrative Articles 58 Objects of Intent and Emotion 59 More Reduplication Patterns 60 Interjections 61 Politeness Expressions 62 Rare Prefixes and Suffixes 63 A Fully Annotated Text 64 Texts to Annotate Appendix A: Technical Description of SENĆOŦEN Sounds Appendix B: SENĆOŦEN Pronouns Appendix C: Demonstrative Articles Appendix D: SENĆOŦEN Kin Terms Appendix E: Index to Technical Linguistic Topics Appendix F: Vocabulary Bibliography SENĆOŦEN Dictionary Basic SENĆOŦEN Dictionary without root and affix indexes

40 Cause

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All languages have patterns in their grammars for expressing the important notion of cause. English has many ways of expressing this notion, but we can identify three general ways English expresses cause in a sentence.

The most common way to express cause in English is with a verb that means basically ‘cause.’ For example, we can say ‘I caused him to eat,’ ‘I made him eat,’ ‘I had him eat,’ and many other ways of getting this idea that ‘I’ was the cause of him eating.

Another way English expresses cause is through verbs that have the notion of cause built into the meaning. For example, the sentence ‘I fed him’ means ‘I caused him to eat.’ We say that ‘feed’ is the causative of ‘eat’ since ‘feed’ means ‘cause to eat.’ Most English verbs, though, have no special causative form. For many verbs, like ‘sleep,’ you just have to use a ‘cause’ verb phrase like ‘put to sleep’ to express the ‘cause’ idea.

A third way of expressing cause in English is used with many intransitive verbs. Verbs like ‘walk’ are causative when they are transitive, and noncausative when they are intransitive. For example, ‘I walked’ is intransitive (no direct object) and there is no idea of ‘cause’ involved. But ‘I walked the dog’ is transitive (‘the dog’ is the object) and also expresses the idea that I caused the dog to walk.

SENĆOŦEN also has three basic ways of expressing ‘cause’ in a sentence, but they are all quite different from the ways English does it. In fact, SENĆOŦEN entirely lacks the three methods used by English. SENĆOŦEN has no verbs like ‘caused’ or ‘made’ to make sentences like ‘I made him eat,’ it has no words like ‘feed’ with a ‘cause’ meaning built in, and intransitive verbs can never be used with a ‘cause’ meaning, like English ‘walk the dog.’ As you will see in this section, SENĆOŦEN uses suffixes on the verb to express cause.

The SENĆOŦEN causative suffixes are transitivizers. Like the ‑ET and ‑NEW̱ suffixes (§32.1 and §32.2), the causative suffixes are added to an intransitive verb to create a transitive verb—a verb that an object suffix can attach to.

The causative is usually only added to intransitive verbs, but it is possible to add the ‘let’ causative to a transitive. See the points in §40.3 for an example. Otherwise, it is not grammatical to add a causative to a word that is already transitive. To say something like ‘I made him feed the dog,’ you would have to say it indirectly using the ‘that’s why’ construction (§39.1), as in SÁT SEN; NIȽ ȻEĆÁ ŚW̱¸EȽENISTW̱S TŦE SḴAXE¸ ‘I told him to; that’s why he fed the dog.’
 

This page has paths:

  1. PART 3 SENĆOŦEN Grammatical Patterns Montler, et al.

Contents of this path:

  1. 40.1. Agent causative: -ISTW̱
  2. 40.2. Inanimate causative: -TW̱
  3. 40.3. Let causative: -TW̱
  4. 40.4. Location causative: -ÁS

This page has tags:

  1. 32.2. Object pronouns (subject not in control): NEW̱ verbs Montler, et al.
  2. 12.6. ‘Not let’ and a subordinate clause Montler, et al.
  3. 16.2. ‘Do what with?’ Montler, et al.
  4. 35.3. Middle with just one participant Montler, et al.
  5. 52 Reporting Verbs and Direct Quotes Montler, et al.
  6. 58.2. -TOW̱ ‘object of emotion’ Montler, et al.
  7. 25.2. ‘Where put?’ ‘Where take?’ ‘Where get?’ Montler, et al.
  8. 61.4. Greeting and Leave Taking Montler, et al.
  9. 58 Objects of Intent and Emotion Montler, et al.

Contents of this tag:

  1. 32.2. Object pronouns (subject not in control): NEW̱ verbs
  2. 32.1. Object pronouns (subject in control): ET verbs
  3. 40.3. Let causative: -TW̱
  4. 39.1. That’s why: NIȽ ȻECÁ ŚW̱-