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• 1 2018-07-28T12:43:36-07:00 44.3. Middle with just one participant 4 plain 2022-03-08T09:19:29-08:00

  štə́ŋ cn.	‘I walk.’
  xʷítəŋ cn.	‘I jump.’
  t̓əŋúʔəŋ cn.	‘I swim.’
  c̓éʔyəŋ cn.	‘I climb up.’
  cíɬəŋ cn.	‘I stand up.’

  
  ► 1 Compare these models with those in §44.1 and §44.2.
  ► 2 All of the middle forms in §44.1 and §44.2 imply two participants. The notion ‘wash,’ for example, necessarily implies that there are two things—one doing the washing and the other getting washed.
  ► 3 Each of the middle forms in the models here in §44.3 implies just one participant. The notion ‘walk,’ for example, is complete with just one person alone walking.
  ► 4 There are over two hundred verbs like this in Klallam. What they have in common is that they involve a quality or an action of the whole, single participant.
  ► 5 A two‑participant root like c̓áʔkʷ ‘wash’ in §44.1 and §44.2 can usually stand alone as a verb. In contrast, the roots of these one‑participant middles can never stand alone as verbs.
  ► 6 You can find these roots in other words without the ‑əŋ middle suffix. For example, cícɬ ‘high’ is related to cíɬəŋ ‘stand up.’ But *cíɬ by itself is not a word at all.
  ► 7 There are some nouns that can be made into one‑participant middles. For example, qʷúʔ ‘water’ becomes a one‑participant verb with the addition of the middle: qʷúʔəŋ ‘carry/fetch water.’
  ► 8 It is possible to add another participant to these basically one‑participant verbs. To do this you must use a causative (see §40). For example, štə́ŋ ‘walk’ gets another participant with štəŋístxʷ ‘cause to walk,’ as in štəŋístxʷ cn cə sqáx̣aʔ ‘I walked the dog.’
  ► 9 These one‑participant middles do not work like the two‑participant middles. So, for example, štə́ŋ cn ʔaʔ cə sqáx̣aʔ can only mean ‘I walked to the dog.’ It cannot mean ‘I did some walking of the dog’ or ‘I walked the dog (as usual).’ Go back to §44.2 and compare this to the two‑participant middles.
  ► 10 While most one‑participant middles refer to actions, there are many that refer to qualities, including most words referring to the sense of taste. Here are a few of them: c̓áq̓ʷəŋ ‘rotten’; c̓íxʷəŋ ‘chilly’; čúxʷəŋ ‘sour’; č̓íx̣əŋ ‘bitter’; č̓úsəŋ  ‘repellent, disgusting’; ɬat̓íq̓əŋ ‘hot’; ɬákʷəŋ ‘tasteless’; ƛ̓áɬəŋ ‘salty’; pícəŋ ‘smooth, slippery’; sáqʷəŋ ‘sweet.’
  ► 11 See Appendix H for an extended list of one‑participant middles.
  

  	mán̓ ʔuʔ yéy̓.	‘It’s very far.’
  	sqiʔám̓ či sʔáwəɬ c štə́ŋ.	‘We have to walk.’
  	x̣ʷə́ŋ st ʔiʔ t̓əŋúʔəŋ.	‘We can swim.’
  	kʷɬən̓xʷáŋaʔɬəŋ st.	‘First, we’ll rest.’