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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes

Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón

Nomenclatural History

Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp. & Endl.) H. Robinson, also known as yacón, is a plant native to the Andean region of South America. The specific epithet of this plant is believed to be derived from the Latin word for leaf ,“folium”, as S. sonchifolius is known for having a distinct leaf shape. An isotype of the yacón specimen was first published by Poepp. and Endl. in 1842, giving the species the Linnaean binomial name Polymnia sonchifolia. The yacón was first placed under the Polymnia genus and remained in this genus until 1978 when American botanist Harold Robinson noticed morphological differences within specimen found in the Polymnia genus and decided to split the genus into two. These being Polymnia and Smallanthus (Smithsonian Institution, 1978).

Despite the fact that this species was only formally documented in the 1800s, it had already had an impact on indigenous peoples for thousands of years prior, as it was noted to be an important part of religious festivals. Yacón was depicted on textiles and ceramic materials which were used during ceremonies, and the first written record of yacón was published in 1615 (Hermann and Heller, 1997). The indigenous name for yacón is derived from the Quechua “yaku” which means “water”. This might be due to the fact that yacón has a high-water content. (Delgado et al., 2013). Other common names include yiquima, jiquimilla, or aricoma, names which are typically observed in other regions of South America. In English the plant is named yacón strawberry because of its sweet flavors (Delgado et al., 2013).

Evolutionary History

Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that was officially categorized as belonging to the Asteraceae family in 1933, after many debates about its classification. The Asteraceae family is composed of 2500 species, with over 1600 genera (Rolnik and Olas, 2021). S. sonchifolius was originally classified into the Polymnia genus, which is a genus that also belongs to the Asteraceae family. In 1978, after many morphological differences were found, botanists decided to split up Polymnia into two making a Smallanthus and a Polymnia genus.

Smallanthus is typically made up of tall perennial herbs that can reach up to 5ft. Smallanthus is known for plants that have tuberous roots with flowers, that produce sterile seeds thus in order to reproduce, rhizomes must be planted (Vitali and Barreto, 2014). Most of the species found within Smallanthus are native to the Andes region however, a few Smallanthus species have successfully been transplanted to Europe, New Zealand, and North America.

In terms of the evolutionary origin of S. sonchifolius, no clear ancestors have been found for this plant (Hermann and Heller, 1997). However, it is hypothesized that yacón arose through the hybridization of two or more Smallanthus species that occupied the same area (Hermann and Heller, 1997). Still, much uncertainty surrounds this plant’s origin due to the fact that analysis of wild Smallanthus populations have historically been understudied. Therefore, this calls for future research into S. sonchifolius, to focus on the gathering genetic data that would lead to a clear evolutionary origin.

Ecology and Life History

Yacón is a perennial plant that is categorized as belonging to the Asteraceae family. For much of its history the exact climate and ecology that are necessary for the successful cultivation of yacón has been unexplored. In recent years however, yacón has gained a lot of traction worldwide, thus more research on the ideal growing conditions have been observed. The wild species of yacón are believed to have evolved in the humid areas of the eastern Andes mountains. Most notably, the wild tubers are believed to have originated in the area between Bolivia and Peru, an area that has mild temperatures and high rainfall (Hermann and Heller, 1997).

Shoots begin to emerge between 30-50 days after planting. Four months after planting occurs, the shoots grow very slowly. Between 6-10 months after planting, the plant enters its reproductive period as the flowers begin to bloom. The blooming of the flowers indicates that the content of carbohydrates in the tuber has reached a maximum, thus during this time frame farmers will begin harvesting the tubers (Silva et al. 2018). A typical harvest can produce between 5-20 tubers, each weighing between 200-500 grams giving an average yield of 5kg per plant (Delgado et al., 2013).

Present day yacón is known for taking advantage of vegetative gaps as well as having a strong preference for disturbed habitats, as it typically grows along riverbanks, landslides, and roadsides (Hermann and Heller, 1997). The typical elevation observed for yacón cultivation is between 1800-3000m (Delgado et al. 2013). The preferred growing season for yacón is during the rainy season which can extend from December to March. However, successful cultivation has been observed outside of this time frame with constant irrigation (Silva et al. 2018). Yacón possesses temperature plasticity, as it has shown to adapt to harsh Andean temperatures, but prolonged exposure can kill the crop. Despite its ability to adapt to different temperatures optimal growth is observed at a range between 18-25ºC. (Hermann and Heller, 1997). Additionally, yacón has shown to do well in areas of rich, well-drained, and light soils. Heavy soils are not ideal as tuber growth is significantly reduced (Hermann and Heller, 1997).

Morphological Description of Vegetative Attributes

The root system of yacón consists of fibrous roots and edible tuberous storage roots. The storage roots can be up to 25 cm long and 10 cm wide (Grau & Rea, 1997). There can be up to 20 storage roots on a single plant, and they are adventitious, growing from rhizomes (Dostert, Roque, Cano, La Torre, & Weigend, 2009). The bark color of the tuberous roots may be cream, pink, purple, or most commonly brown while the storage tissue can be white, cream, yellow, pink, or purple (Grau & Rea, 1997).

Yacón has a height of up to 3 meters and its stem, which becomes hollow when the plant matures, can be cylindrical or angular (Dostert, Roque, Cano, La Torre, & Weigend, 2009). The leaves of yacón are arranged oppositely on the stem. Its lower leaves are ovate and hastate and connate or auriculate at the base while its upper leaves are ovate-lanceolate. The upper and lower surfaces of the leaves have dense pubescence of glands and trichomes (Grau & Rea, 1997).

Morphological Description of Reproductive Attributes

Yacón has terminal inflorescences with between one and five axes, each with three capitula (Dostert, Roque, Cano, La Torre, & Weigend, 2009). Their color ranges from yellow to orange. The ray florets are pistillate, or female, and are about 12 mm long and 7 mm wide. Each has two or three teeth. The disk flowers are staminate, or male, and are about 7 mm long (Grau & Rea, 1997). The achenes are dark brown, and their size ranges from 3.7 mm to 2.2 mm (Dostert, Roque, Cano, La Torre, & Weigend, 2009). Yacón has a low proportion of viable seeds, which may be due to pollen sterility and a long history of clonal propogation (Grau & Rea, 1997).

The rhizomes are used for asexual reproduction through vegetative propagation. They are a reddish color and are located at the base of the stem (Grau & Rea, 1997).

Historical Accounts

Yacón has a long history of use in the Andean region. Root remains of yacón were found in northwestern Argentina, pointing to its use in Candelaria Culture from between 1 A.D. and 1000 A.D. (Zardini, 1991). Yacón was also depicted on pottery and in embroideries found in Nazca, Peru from between 500 A.D. and 1200 A.D. However, the first written account of yacón was made in 1615 in a list by Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala about 55 native crops that were cultivated in the Andes (Grau & Rea, 1997). In 1653, Bernabé Cobo, a priest and writer, described the value of yacón as a fruit, especially in warm weather, and its ability to stay fresh for over twenty days of sea travel (Zardini, 1991). In 1857, Hugh Algernon Weddell collected a type specimen of yacón and gave it the scientific name Polymnia edulis (Grau & Rea, 1997). In 1956, Perez Arbeláez reported seeing yacón at the Paris exhibition, which was the first time it had been introduced in Europe (Zardini, 1991). In 1927, there was an attempt to cultivate the crop in San Remo, Italy, but this ended because of World War II. Throughout the 20th century, the cultivation of yacón decreased in the Andes, but starting in the 1980’s, interest in the crop expanded internationally (Grau & Rea, 1997).

Domestication History

Researchers argue that yacón is a semi-domesticated plant since it is able to coexist with many other wild Smallanthus species (Aráoz et al. 2013). Yacón ability to coexist with other wild Smallanthus species is believed to have contributed to its evolutionary history. Domestication of yacón has shown to have increased its ability to store water and produce much larger and wider roots (Aráoz et al. 2013). Domestication has also shown to have an impact of the sweetness of the tubers, which in turn has led to an increase in caloric values sustainable for human consumption (Aráoz et al. 2013). The domestication of yacón is still widely debated, however it is believed to have originated during the Incan empire era (Singh, 2011).

Cultivation Practices

Historically the yacón plant is cultivated in the Andes region of South America, an area which stretches from Venezuela to Northern Argentina. The largest yacón diversity exists in Perú. The typical elevations for successful cultivation of yacón range between 1800-3000m above sea level, and in temperate and subtropical zones. Traditional ways of growing yacón are limited to the vegetative propagation of rhizomes, since yacón seeds are sterile. Since the 1980s yacón cultivation has been introduced to other regions of the world such as New Zealand and Japan. Czech Republic has also begun mass cultivating this plant in order to export to European countries such as Italy, France and Germany. Major cultivation of yacón for export is done by farmers of the Oxapampa area in Peru. These exports are most popularly sent to Japan which then sells yacón as dried products. Harvesting of yacón includes the process of carefully digging into the ground to create a hole surrounding the tubers, which are then pulled by the central stem. The tubers are pulled off of the central stem, In the Andes region yacón is typically sold in small markets and consumed at great volumes during religious festivals such as All Souls’ Day and the Corpus Christi festival. It is theorized that the yacón plant has been cultivated for thousands of years as records of yacón cultivation have been observed during the Incan empire.

Nutritional Value and Parts of the Plant Consumed

The typical parts of yacón consumed are the tubers however, other parts of the plant have been observed to also consumed. One of the reasons why yacón has been popularized and promoted as a superfood is due to the naturally occurring sugars contained withing the storage tubers. The yacón tuber is typically composed of 70% water, 20% carbohydrates, 5% lipids, and proteins. Unlike other tuber-like plants, yacón roots store carbohydrates in the form of fructans rather than starches (Yan et al., 2019). The storage tubers have fructooligosaccharides (FOS), a type of sugar that is not metabolized by the human body thus has a very low caloric input into diets (Yan et al., 2019). This makes yacón a desirable superfood since it is able to be an alternative sweetener for people with diabetes. Continuous intake of FOS has also shown to increase immunity within the human body. In a study conducted in 2010 it was shown that intake of FOS over a 30-day period led to an improvement of anti-inflammatory phagocytic cells (Delgado et al., 2010). Additionally, intake of FOS through yacón flour led to regulation of intestinal microbiota in mice (Yan et al., 2019). Yacón is typically commercially consumed as jams and syrups but also raw, cooked, as flour, and chips (dried slices).

Furthermore, other parts of yacón that are typically consumed include the leaves as they have been found to contain many health promoting qualities. The leaves of yacón contain protocatechuic, chlorogenic, caffeic, and ferulic acids. Together these acids have been shown to have antioxidative properties thus many people that consume the leaves typically brew them to make teas (Yan et al., 2019). The flowers of the plant have also been found to have some antioxidative properties however, more research needs to be conducted in order to finalize this claim (Yan et al., 2019).

Human Experience

Throughout the Andes, yacón has mostly been cultivated at a relatively small scale. Farmers will grow a few yacón plants to feed their families, and they may also grow it as a cash crop to be sold locally. However, some yacón products are exported to Japan, the United States, and Europe (Ojansivu, Ferreira, & Salminen, 2011). Beyond being a food source, yacón has a few different uses, including its role during religious and cultural festivals. From Peru to Argentina, yacón is eaten during the Corpus Christi festival, which has taken the place of the Incan K’apac Raymi feast. In Ecuador, it is consumed during festivals on All Saints’ Day and Day of the Dead (Grau & Rea, 1997). These applications show that yacón has a long history of usage, which has evolved with the religion and culture in the region.

Beginning in the late 20th century, yacón cultivation expanded internationally to countries, such as the United States, New Zealand, Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, China, Russia, and Brazil (Dostert, Roque, Cano, La Torre, & Weigend, 2009; Ojansivu, Ferreira, & Salminen, 2011). Yacón is becoming a more popular food crop because of the variety of health benefits it offers. As people are growing more aware about the food they eat, yacón derived products may become incorporated into more diets. For example, in Brazil and Japan yacón syrup and yacón flour can be found in supermarkets (Ojansivu, Ferreira, & Salminen, 2011). However, as this crop becomes more commercialized, it is important that its cultivation practices are ethical and sustainable.

References

Choque Delgado , G. T., Tamashiro, W. M. da S. C., Maróstica, M. R., & Pastore, G. M. (2013, September). Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius): A Functional Food. Plant foods for human nutrition (Dordrecht, Netherlands). Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23709016/

Dostert, N., Roque, J., Cano, A., La Torre, M. I., & Weigend, M. (2009). Factsheet – Botanical Data: Yacón – Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poepp.) H. Rob. https://repositorio.promperu.gob.pe/bitstream/handle/123456789/1343/Factsheet_botanical_data_yacon_2009_keyword_principal.pdf?sequence=1

Grau A., & Rea J. (1997). Yacon. Smallanthus sonchifolius (Poep. & Endl.) H. Robinson. In: Hermann M, Heller J, editors. Andean roots and tubers: Ahipa, arracacha, maca and yacon (pp. 199–242). Rome: IPGRI.

Hermann, M., & Heller, J. (1997). Andean roots and tubers. Google Books. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.google.com/books/edition/Andean_Roots_and_Tubers/O_QfhwpEajoC?hl=en&gbpv=0

Khajehei, F. (2019, September). Yacon (Smallanthus Sonchifolius Poepp. & endl) - the potential of a neglected crop as an alternative sweetener and source of phytochemicals for Functional Foods. OPUS. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://opus.uni-hohenheim.de/volltexte/2019/1663/

Ojansivu, I., Ferreira, C. L., & Salminen, S. (2011). Yacon, a new source of prebiotic oligosaccharides with a history of safe use. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 22(1), 40-46.

Robinson, H. (1978). STUDIES IN THE HELIANTHEAE (ASTERACEAE) . XII. RE-ESTABLISHMENT OF THE GENUS SMALLANTHUS. Directory listing for ia803209.us.archive.org. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://ia803209.us.archive.org/

Silva, D. M. N. da, Oliveira, F. L. de, Cavatte, P. C., Quaresma, M. A. L., & Christo, B. F. (2018, September 3). Growth and development of yacon in different periods of planting and growing regions. Acta Scientiarum. Agronomy. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.scielo.br/j/asagr/a/4rdrZhwpsZ7zy4LDCMC4BXk/?lang=en

Singh, R. J. (2011, September 15). Genetic Resources, chromosome engineering, and Crop Improvement. Google Books. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.google.com/books/edition/Genetic_Resources_Chromosome_Engineering/9QTLBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0

VITALI, M. A. I. R. A. S., SANCHO, G. I. S. E. L. A., & KATINAS, L. I. L. I. A. N. A. (2015, June 19). A revision of Smallanthus (Asteraceae, Millerieae), the “yacón” genus. Semantic Scholar. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/7411/035c2edbc763efd90e4b2f2c8e314c064ada.pdf?_ga=2.246210306.745155970.1653182503-2122997589.1653182503

Yan, M. R., Welch, R., Rush, E. C., Xiang, X., & Wang, X. (2019, November 3). A sustainable wholesome foodstuff; health effects and potential dietotherapy applications of Yacon. Nutrients. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6893727/

Zardini, E. (1991). Ethnobotanical notes on “Yacon,” polymnia sonchifolia (Asteraceae). Economic Botany, 45(1), 72-85.

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
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9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
26. Lorem Ipsum: The Fake Latin Text Substitute Elementum facilisis leo vel fringilla est ullamcorper eget nulla facilisi etiam dignissim diam quis enim lobortis scelerisque fermentum dui faucibus in ornare quam viverra orci sagittis eu volutpat odio facilisis mauris sit amet massa vitae tortor condimentum lacinia quis vel eros donec ac odio tempor orci dapibus ultrices in iaculis nunc sed augue lacus viverra vitae congue eu consequat ac felis donec et odio pellentesque diam volutpat commodo sed egestas egestas fringilla phasellus faucibus scelerisque eleifend donec pretium vulputate sapien nec sagittis aliquam malesuada bibendum arcu vitae elementum curabitur vitae nunc sed velit dignissim sodales ut eu sem integer vitae justo eget magna fermentum iaculis eu non diam phasellus vestibulum lorem sed risus ultricies tristique nulla aliquet enim tortor at auctor urna nunc id cursus metus aliquam eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin aliquam ultrices sagittis orci a scelerisque purus semper eget duis at tellus at urna condimentum mattis pellentesque id nibh tortor id aliquet lectus proin nibh nisl condimentum id venenatis a condimentum vitae sapien pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas sed tempus urna et pharetra pharetra massa massa ultricies mi quis hendrerit dolor magna eget est lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipiscing elit pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas integer eget aliquet nibh praesent tristique magna sit amet purus gravida quis blandit turpis cursus in hac habitasse platea dictumst quisque sagittis purus sit amet volutpat consequat mauris nunc congue nisi vitae suscipit tellus. By Lorem Ipsum #lorem #ipsum

Contents of this tag:

This image shows the different life stages of the yacón plant, from planting to senescence. The image follows a yacón plant, that can grown up to 5ft and lasts 8 months to grow fully mature. This image was first published in the book "Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement" in 2011 published by Medicinal Plants, Volume 6, and written by Ram J. Singh. Book URL: https://www.google.com/books/edition/Genetic_Resources_Chromosome_Engineering/9QTLBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0

This page references:

Asteraceae Family Phylogeny
Yacón root system
Yacón leaves
Yacon growth stages This image shows the different life stages of the yacón plant, from planting to senescence. The image follows a yacón plant, that can grown up to 5ft and lasts 8 months to grow fully mature. This image was first published in the book "Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement" in 2011 published by Medicinal Plants, Volume 6, and written by Ram J. Singh. Book URL: https://www.google.com/books/edition/Genetic_Resources_Chromosome_Engineering/9QTLBQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=0
Yacon distribution This map depicts the typical cultivation of the yacón plant in different continents. It shows that the yacón has been cultivated in northeastern South America, Czech Republic , and New Zealand. This picture was originally published in "Yacon (Smallanthus sonchifolius Poepp. & Endl) - the potential of a neglected crop as an alternative sweetener and source of phytochemicals for functional foods", written by Forough Khajehei, published in 2019. The link to the paper is http://opus.uni-hohenheim.de/volltexte/2019/1663/pdf/dissertation_f.khajehei.pdf
Yacon Products
Yacón flowers