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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Moringa oleifera: Domestication Histories and Emerging Deviations from Indian Origin

The superfood, Moringa oleifera, has a rich history deeply rooted in its native Indian domestication and usage. Also widely known as “The Miracle Tree”, M. oleifera is often recognized by its white flowers and long-seed pods that are greatly sought after. Not only does M. oleifera provide an incomparable food source and multipurpose oil through its pods, but all parts of the plant may be used and consumed. The versatility of this plant is venerated in Indian culture where its consumption and, most importantly, medicinal usage involve all parts of the plant. Due to its spread across other countries, the species and its utilization have evolved to suit individual cultures and their own domestication desires. In the Philippines and North and South Africa, its nutritional value is greatly relied upon to treat malnourishment, purify water, and support community infrastructure while the Indian native medicinal usage is less emphasized and not well known. The Americas, on the other hand, have increasingly toyed with the novel M. oleifera ‘organic-superfood’ craze that tends to remove emphasis from its cultural value and multipurpose utilization to instead fawn over its supposed energy boosts, skin care implementations, and uses in its powder – likely less effective and increasingly more expensive than the original. Though its original purpose grows increasingly colonized, the domestication ventures globally of this superfood continue the legacy of the Moringa oleifera species itself – marked genetic increases in energy production associated with plastic to nucleus gene duplications. As each nation tends to and selects for various aspects of this energy contribution – whether for the nutritional, medicinal, or vanity value – the variation in these M. oleifera may grow towards eventual speciation. By George Vetushko and Lauren Guevara #drumsticktree

Notes on Nomenclature

Common names: drumstick tree, horseradish tree, moringa
Indigenous names: Shobhanjana; murungai (Tamilian word); Shigru (hindi)

This super food is commonly known by the colloquial term moringa, but also widely known as the drumstick tree or horseradish tree. In South Asia, the indigenous name for this species is shobhanjana which means “the auspicious plant” because of its superfood benefits. The binomial name of the drumstick tree is M. oleifera. It is classified under the order Brassicales which includes cabbages, capers, mustard, and nasturtiums and the family Moringaceae, generally noted as the horseradish tree family (Germplasm Resources Information Network).

Eras of Evolution

The figure on the right models the phylogenetic history of M. oleifera and 10 related angiosperm species. Multiple hypotheses have attempted to narrow down whether the magnoliids involved form “a sister clade either to eudicots or monocots” or if they formed a sister clade to the collective “supergroup formed by all eudicot and monocot plants”, but this figure prefers the latter hypothesis (Ojeda-Lopez et al., 2020).

Taken in unison with the figure below, the evolutionary history of M. oleifera plots an increase of plastid to nucleus gene duplications – involving chloroplast functioning and increased energy production – with a recent burst in these energy-associated genes paralleling the Anthropocene and emergence of artificial selection. Via its evolutionary history, then, one may correlate the evolution of M. oleifera’s energy production on a genetic basis with the progression of agriculture and utilization of this superfood for its nutrient and medicinal potential (Olson, 2009).

Genetics and Genesis

M. oleifera grows best in semiarid, tropical, and subtropical areas and in neutral to lightly acidic sandy soil. Since seeds are collected for oil extraction, the M. oleifera is often grown by directly through cuttings. This species can grow anytime of year with sufficient water and M. oleifera can be grown by direct seeding and cuttings. If water is available for irrigation, the M. oleifera tree can be harvested 6 to 8 months after initial planting. However the fruits are not produced in the first year, and the yield is generally low during the first few years. By year two, it produces around 300 pods and by year three around 400–500. An older tree can yield 1000 or more pods (Azad et al., 2015).

The wild ancestors of the domesticated M. oleifera are quite rare and only appear in Punjab and surrounding areas where the locals still cultivate them for their medical usage and are not consumed. In contrast to wild ancestors, the domesticated M. oleifera have shown to have increased levels of glucomoringin and reduction of glucosamine which has resulted in a change in taste. “Wild” M. oleifera has a bitter taste and is accepted as inedible (Chodur et al., 2018).

Marvelous Morphology

Below, we may observe the vegetative and reproductive attributes of Moringa oleifera.
M. oleifera leaves are alternate, 7-60 cm long, tripinnately compound with each pinnate bearing 4-6 pairs of leaflets that are dark green, elliptical to obovate, and 1-2 cm in length (Britannica, 2018). Flowering of the M. oleifera is dichogamous and favors cross-pollination, but around 25% of plants self-pollinate. Cross-pollination occurs through bees and other insects attracted by the flowers (Krieg et al., 2017).

Divining the Domestication

As early as 2000 years BC, M. oleifera has been described as a medicinal herb in India.
In the annals of Ayurvedic Medicine, one of the oldest healthcare systems in the world, M. oleifera has been mentioned as a cure for over 300 diseases. Vélez-Gavilán reports that M. oleifera spread from India – likely the Tamil Nadu region – further throughout Southeast India and historical accounts further map its expansion pathways of throughout the Middle East, Mexico, and Island nations globally throughout the late 1800s and early 1900s. Older records first note upon M. oleifera’s introduction to Africa and the Philippines via trade – regions where M. oleifera’s high nutritional value quickly became central to its domestication future. M. oleifera later made its way to the Americas from the Philippines due to Spanish colonization on the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade and thus the modern species of M. oleifera found in Mexico is likely a variant of the Philippine domesticated M. oleifera and not the native Indian variant (Chodur et al., 2018). Such variations may be integral to examining the motives and lasting effects of domestication – Indian native uses revolved around medicinal properties when compared to the nutritional value the crop held in the Philippines (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020). The spread of M. oleifera to Africa may be further complicated by its later reintroduction by the British Empire utilizing the colonized Indian variant. Thus, differently domesticated M. oleifera arrived at multiple times in history – the British intent to its introduction is reported as “ornamental” in comparison to North African reliance on the nutritious value potential of the plant (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020). The plant is ubiquitous in many tropical regions and is also present in the Caribbean, Mexico, Australia, and Central America – each region reporting diverging plant behaviors (i.e. Australian M. oleifera seem to form unique dense thickets around parent plants) as it is integrated for different agricultural purposes and into varying environments with varying invasive potential (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020).

Comparing Cultivations

Cultivation of M. oleifera within its native origin about Tamil Nadu and other Southern states seems to center about its medicinal properties. A perennial plant, it is able to be cultivated year round with a high yield in most of the Indian South – rich in tropical land.
Though its pod is an integral vegetable to South Indian cuisine, M. oleifera may be most known for its implementation in Siddha medicine. Its pods in unison with its flowers and leaves are packed with nutrition – from vitamins to carbohydrates to essential proteins to fats and dietary fibers. M. oleifera’s high Vitamin C content has been ascribed to great usage in tending to wounds and irritable bowel disease (Pandiyan et al., 2020).
M. oleifera is also grown in the Caribbean, the Pacific Islands, Latin America, and across Africa, including Ethiopia and Sudan, where M. oleifera seeds are used for their water purification properties. Because of its nutritive value, its perennial nature, and its ability to withstand severe drought, M. oleifera trees have also been used to combat malnutrition. Bon Appetit’s Venugopal also dialogues their own experience with the plant as Tamilian, its nostalgic mysticism, and the awkward progressive corruption American trends have brought unto the origin and sanctity of the plant (Venugopal, 2018).

Venugopal delineates the utilization of the entire plant – the pod, flowers, and leaves for food and the roots and bark in medicine:

“The leaves cook down into a slightly bitter spinach-like stir fry. Its delicate white flowers come apart when simmered in sambar, a south Indian lentil stew, or steamed with basmati rice to make a fragrant pilaf.
The ribbed drumsticks, typically cut into finger-length pieces, are best eaten in sambars as well, or sautéed in a simple semi-dry curry, with onions, curry leaves, chopped tomatoes, and an assortment of whole and powdered spices. A signature dish of the southern state Kerala is avial, a traditionally thick coconut-based dish that prominently features drumsticks. Once cooked, the inedible exterior of the pod can be easily split to reveal a fleshy interior with pea-sized seeds. Scrape the pulp out and toss the rough skin. It’s slightly sweet, somewhat earthy, but subtle enough to melt into whatever it’s cooked with.”

Venugopal critiques the colonization of the name of the plant itself – from murungai, the plant they grew up with, to M. oleifera, the plant powder all the West is obsessed with for its vitamins, skincare potential, and energy boosts. In the U.S, M. oleifera is only sold in this powdered form – absent of its material, fleshy origins and deprived of its cultural origins – for prices around $15 in comparison to Indian sales around 15 cents.

Noteworthy Nutrition

M. oleifera is quite a very giving resource, as every part of the plant is consumed. The plant notably contains 15-20% protein and 50% nitrogen-free extract and is rich in micronutrients and vitamins making it a nutritious superfood (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020). Leaves are commonly used in salads or soups, for example in Africa the flavor of the leaves are used to flavor dishes and are added to meat preparations. As mentioned prior, dried leaves are often ground and can be used as tea or a health supplement. Besides the leaves, the pods are the most coveted part of the plant due to their versatility in consumption and usage. When green, the pods are picked and boiled similar to green beans to be used in dishes such as sambhar, south Indian curry. When the pods are dry, ben oil can be extracted from the seeds and used in a variety of ways such as cooking, as a lubricant, or burned in oil lamps. Seeds are also ground into a powder which is used mixed with water in order to purify and reduce the acidity of turbid water. Other parts of M. oleifera like the flowers and roots are also consumed, being made into drinks or ground to be used as a seasoning similar to horseradish (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020).
The plant is often fed and consumed by livestock in order to increase milk yield and assist in nitrogen fixation in soil when used as manure. In addition to feed for animals, M. oleifera leaves are used in agricultural practices to enhance growth of peanuts, soybeans, sugarcane, and coffee (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020).

Harmony and Humanity

The future for the Human Experience is endless: the versatility of M. oleifera is immense and thus its global ramifications are multifaceted.

Infrastructure

M. oleifera was introduced to rural communities in South Africa – notably Botswana – in the early 2000s to address malnutrition, alleviate hunger, treat renal failure and IBD, and replace other unprofitable crops (Mashamaite, 2021). M. oleifera seeds have also become used in water purification, a property immensely valuable to regions in mitigating contamination and associated viral outbreaks. Counteracting these obstacles allows fundamental progress to nations in building their infrastructure and consolidating resources, protecting traditions and culture, and elevating the overall standard of living.

Economic Impact

M. oleifera is one of the host plants of Leveillula taurica, which causes major damage to papaya (Carica papaya) – a plant native to Mesoamerica. Caution is needed when the species occurs near papaya plantations, a crop growing in popularity in India -- a portentous sign of competition and inevitable agricultural dissonance (Vélez-Gavilán, 2020). Furthermore, M. oleifera may pose potential threat to other native species globally as it may take hold in unprepared tropical niches in Australia and cause devastating economic and ecological damage.

Environmental Impact

In Australia, research is delving into the utilization of M. oleifera seeds as biodiesel fuel – a potential catalyst for commercial transition to renewable and plant-based energy. The seeds do not produce smoke or aerosols and thus have a markedly lower carbon footprint in comparison to fossil fuels (Azad et. al, 2015). In this figure, the M. oleifera seed oil itself is used as the paint for the tapestry. M. oleifera is also supposedly toxic to pests at high doses and further studies may investigate this implementation in pest control, according to Vélez-Gavilán.

Collectively, the potential of M. oleifera is endless in its applications within agriculture, the food pyramid, medicine and public health, the colonization of South Asian medicine, and pest control. The deviations in domestication and selection pressures may therein contribute to an eventual speciation of these variants according to their geographic location and associated cultural purpose.

References

Azad, A. K., Rasul, M. G., Khan, M. M. K., Sharma, S. C., & Islam, R. (2015). Prospect of moringa seed oil as a sustainable biodiesel fuel in Australia: A Review. Procedia Engineering, 105, 601–606. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2015.05.037

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2018, July 27). moringa. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/plant/horseradish-tree

Chodur, G. M., Olson, M. E., Wade, K. L., Stephenson, K. K., Nouman, W., Garima, & Fahey, J. W. (2018). Wild and domesticated moringa oleifera differ in taste, glucosinolate composition, and antioxidant potential, but not myrosinase activity or protein content. Scientific Reports, 8(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-26059-3

Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Agricultural Research Service (ARS), United States Department of Agriculture. Taxon: Moringa oleifera Lam. Moringa oleifera Lam. Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=24597

Krieg, J., Goetze, D., Porembski, S., Arnold, P., Linsenmair, K. E., & Stein, K. (2017). Floral and reproductive biology of Moringa oleifera (Moringaceae) in Burkina Faso, West Africa. Acta Horticulturae, (1158), 63–70. https://doi.org/10.17660/actahortic.2017.1158.8

Mashamaite, C. V., Pieterse, P. J., Mothapo, P. N., & Phiri, E. E. (2021). Moringa oleifera in South Africa: A review on its production, growing conditions and consumption as a food source. South African Journal of Science, 117(3/4). https://doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2021/8689

Olson, M. E. (2002). Combining Data from DNA Sequences and Morphology for a Phylogeny of Moringaceae (Brassicales). Systematic Botany, 27(1), 55–73. http://www.jstor.org/stable/3093895

Ojeda-López, J., Marczuk-Rojas, J. P., Polushkina, O. A., Purucker, D., Salinas, M., & Carretero-Paulet, L. (2020). Evolutionary analysis of the Moringa oleifera genome reveals a recent burst of plastid to nucleus gene duplications. Scientific reports, 10(1), 17646. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-73937-w

Pandiyan M, Sivakumar C, Radhakrishnan V, Krishnaveni A, Paramasivam V, et al. (2020) Collection and Conservation of Local Types of Moringa (Moringa oleifera (L.) Trees for Good Sources of Traditional Vegetable. J Plant Sci Curr Res 4: 010

Vélez-Gavilán, J. (2020). Moringa oleifera (horse radish tree). Invasive Species Compendium. https://doi.org/10.1079/isc.34868.20203483184
Venugopal, N. (2018, May 14). I grew up eating this common Indian vegetable. now it's a wellness 'superfood.'. Bon Appétit. Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.bonappetit.com/story/moringa-plant-wellness-superfood

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12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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