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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds

Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi

Nomenclatural History

Plukenetia volubilis was first described by the naturalist Carl Linnaeus in 1753, who assigned it the Linnean binomial name Plukenetia volubilis Linnaeus. The full taxonomic name is often abbreviated as Plukenetia volubilis L. or simply referred to as Plukenetia volubilis (Flores, 2010).
Common names for Plukenetia volubilis include inca peanut and sacha inchi. Sacha inchi comes from the indigenous Quechua language and roughly translates to 'false peanut'. This name reflects the interchangeable nature of peanuts and sacha inchi seeds in traditional cuisine.
Other names of both indigenous and Spanish origin are occasionally used, including sacha yachi, suwaa, correa, amauebe, maní estrella, and maní del monte (Kohdahl, 2020).

Evolutionary History

Plukenetia volubilis is closely related to a number of other species in the Plukenetia genus, which is part of the Euphorbiaceae family (Cárdenas, 2021). The genus is comprised of two clades based on the venation of the leaves. Taxa in the pinnately veined clade have only one primary vein on each leaf. Taxa in the palmately veined clade, which Plukenetia volubilis belongs to, have between three and five primary veins (Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021).
Species in the genus Plukenetia are widely distributed in tropical regions of the world, including Central America, Mexico, South America, Africa, Madagascar, and Southeast Asia. Analysis suggests that the genus originated in the forests of Brazil around 28.7 million years ago, and later dispersed to other regions. The ancestor of Plukenetia volubilis is thought to be the only lineage that dispersed to Central and South America and later returned to the Amazon during the Pliocene. During this time, rapid diversification in many taxa occurred due to the formation of the Andes. The common ancestor of Plukenetia volubilis and Plukenetia cf. carolis-vegae began to speciate along this new elevation gradient. Preference for different elevations allowed this common ancestor to diverge into the two extant taxa. Plukenetia volubilis favors low-to-medium elevations of 100-800 meters, while Plukenetia cf. carolis-vegae prefers high elevations of 1500-2500 meters (Cardinal-McTeague et al., 2019).

Ecology and Life History

Plukenetia volubilis is found throughout the western and northern regions of the Amazon Basin. It is distributed through portions of Brazil, Bolivia, Perú, Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, Suriname, and the Lesser Antilles. The plant grows in moist, lowland forests, preferring disturbed areas and the edges of forests. Though it tends to grow at elevations under 900 m, it is capable of producing fruit up to altitudes of 1490 m elevation. Plukenetia volubilis can tolerate temperatures ranging between 10-37ºC. Plants typically flower 3-5 months after germination and fruit 8-9 months after germinating (Kodahl, 2020).
Though most commonly found in moist to wet lowland forests, Plukenetia volubilis can also occupy other ecological niches. Within the species, two groups with slight morphological differences exist, with the first being found at mid-elevations, and the second growing in open savannah (Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021).

Vegetative Morphology

Plukenetia volubilis belongs to the palmately veined clade of Plukenetia genus. It has palmately veined leaves, which are triangular to ovate in shape with truncate or cordate bases. The leaves have basilaminar glands that are usually separated by a small knob(Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021).
The plant is deciduous, losing its leaves during portions of the year. Leaves are simple, have serrated margins, and are arranged alternately (Flores & Lock, 2012).
The plant is a perennial, semi-woody plant that frequently grows in a climbing habit. It grows to approximately 2 meters high. The basilaminate glands are rounded or elliptical and are noticeable on the axial surfaces of leaves. Leaves are 10-12 centimeters long and 8-10 centimeters wide, petioles are 2-6 centimeters long (Flores, 2010).

Reproductive Morphology

Plukenetia volubilis has both staminate (male) flowers and pistillate (female) flowers, arranged together in a racemose thyrse. It is monecious, meaning male and female flowers are present on the same plant. There is one or a few pistillate flowers at the base of the inflorescence, with several staminate flowers above the pistillate flower(s). The flowers are very small and do not have any petals, though they do have 4-5 greenish-yellow sepals (Kodahl, 2020).
The fruit of Plukenetia volubilis is lobed and typically has 4 carpels, though in cultivation is often has 5 carpels. Immature fruits are green and fleshy, and they darken in color as they dry. Each carpel contains a lenticular seed surrounded by a hard, dark brown testa (Kodahl, 2020). Seeds are between 1.5 to 2 centimeters in diameter, and weigh between 48 to 100 grams (Flores, 2010). Mature seeds are released from the capsules around two weeks after maturation. The capsules dehisce as they dry, releasing the seeds to the ground. This occurs nearly year round, with one plant often containing seeds at various stages of maturity (Bueno-Borges et al., 2018).

Historical Accounts

There is archaelogical evidence that sacha inchi was cultivated by the Incas around 3000-5000 years ago. Inca grave sites include depictions of sacha inchi plants and seed pods (Kodahl, 2020).
In his account of Incan history, published in 1609, Garcilaso de la Vega mentions that the native people called the plant "inchic" and the Spanish called it "maní". He describes that the taste of inchic is similar to almonds, and that it must be eaten roasted or else there are negative effects. He also mentions that it can be mixed with honey to make a dessert, and that oil from the plant is used to treat a variety of illnesses (Flores, 2010).

Domestication History

Though Plukenetia volubilis is not entirely domesticated, there is evidence of ancient semi-domestication in the Plukenetia genus. Cultivated species with larger seeds are present on multiple continents, suggesting that at least two independent domestication events occurred, one in South America and one in Africa (Cardinal-McTeague et al., 2019). Recent efforts to fully domesticate Plukenetia volubilis and increase the prevalence of desirable traits have focused on increasing seed size to generate larger harvest yields. There has been both targeted breeding and selection during replanting, where farmers only utilize the largest seeds when establishing Plukenetia volubilis plantations (Kohdahl, 2020).
Plukenetia volubilis displays high amounts of genetic diversity between wild populations, which is promising for domestication efforts. The plant can also be propagated by cuttings to produce genetically identical plants which take less time to flower than plants grown from seed (Kohdahl, 2020).

Cultivation Practices

Sacha inchi has been cultivated in its native range by the indigenous people of Peru for generations. It is grown primarily in the lowlands and is incorporated into the traditional diets of a number of indigenous groups as a staple (Supriyanto et al., 2022).
Sacha inchi grows well in a number of other regions worldwide. It is cultivated outside of its native range in Central and South America. It is also grown in Asian countries, including China, Thailand, and Vietnam (Cárdenas et al., 2021).
It is beginning to be cultivated in Indonesia as well, where trials are being conducted to determine the best methods of cultivating the crop (Supriyanto et al., 2022).

Nutritional Value

The most remarkable property of Plukenetia volubilis is the extremely high level of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, contained in the seeds. The seeds are 45–55% lipids, with nearly 85% of the total lipid content attributed to omega-3 and omega-6. The raw seeds of Plukenetia volubilis contain around 22-30% protein, making them a valuable source of nutrition. The plant also contains a variety of amino acids, including tyrosine, isoleucine, lysine, and tryptophan (Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021). Not only does this plant contain valuable proteins and amino acids, it also contains antioxidants. Around 21 phenolic compounds are found in the oil, which increase in frequency as the roasting intensity of the seeds increases (Kodahl & Sørensen, 2021). Research has also shown that the plant contains essential fatty acids, phenolic compounds, and vitamin E, which have been shown to have health benefits (Cárdenas et al., 2021). The antioxidative properties derived from the plant may help reduce the risk of cancer, coronary heart disease, and stroke. Plukenetia volubilis seeds and seed oil are commonly consumed for their nutritional value (Kodahl & Sørensen, 2021).

Culinary Applications

Though the seeds and seed oil are most often consumed, the leaves have also been eaten in salads or dried and made into tea. Roasted and salted seeds are eaten as a snack. Seeds can also be coated in chocolate as a dessert, ground into butter, or milled into flour (Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021).
Sacha inchi has been used in traditional Peruvian cooking in a variety of ways, and can be used as a substitute for peanuts. There are numerous examples of traditional Peruvian foods that can be made using sacha inchi seeds. Incachapi is a soup made from boiling sacha inchi, corn, chicken, garlic, and coriander. Porridges can be made by boiling plantains and sacha inchi together, including lechona api (made with green plantains) and pururuca (made with ripe plantains). Sacha inchi can also be made into a butter by roasting it and then grinding it with salt and water (Flores, 2010).

Medicinal Value

A historical account by Inca Garcilaso de la Vega mentions that indigenous people used oil from sacha inchi for the treatment of many illnesses (Flores, 2010). Numerous indigenous groups in Peru have traditionally used sacha inchi for medicinal purposes. The Mayorunas, Chayuhitas, Shipibas, and Boras grind seeds and oil into a revitalizing skin cream. The oil is used to treat muscle pain and rheumatism by the Secovas, Candoshis, Amueshas, and Cashibos. In a study conducted in San Martín, 67% of the Peruvian respondents said they utilized sacha inchi for health reasons. The seeds and oil are purported to have positive effects on cholesterol, cardiovascular function, and gastrointestinal health (Kohdahl & Sørensen, 2021).
Scientific studies investigating the health benefits of sacha inchi have been promising. The seeds and seed oil are most often investigated, though some studies have also looked at extracts from the leaves of the plant. There is growing evidence that the plant may help reduce the risk of certain diseases, including dermatitis, chronic inflammatory disease, and cardiovascular disease. It has also been shown to potentially discourage tumor growth. Compounds found in the plant, notably essential fatty acids, phenolic compounds and vitamin E, are known to act as antioxidants, reduce cholesterol, support immune function, and have positive effects on skin health (Cárdenas et al., 2021).

References

Bueno-Borges, L. B., Sartim, M. A., Gil, C. C., Sampaio, S. V., Rodrigues, P. H. V., & Regitano-d'Arce, M. A. B. (2018, October). Sacha inchi seeds from sub-tropical cultivation: Effects of roasting on antinutrients, antioxidant capacity and oxidative stability. Journal of food science and technology. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6133840/

Cárdenas, D. M., Gómez Rave, L. J., & Soto, J. A. (2021, September). Biological activity of Sacha Inchi (plukenetia volubilis linneo) and potential uses in human health: A Review. Food technology and biotechnology. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8542186/

Cardinal-McTeague, W. M., Wurdack, K. J., Sigel, E. M., & Gillespie, L. J. (2019, January 22). Seed size evolution and biogeography of Plukenetia (Euphorbiaceae), a pantropical genus with traditionally cultivated oilseed species - BMC ecology and evolution. BioMed Central. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://bmcecolevol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12862-018-1308-9

Flores, D. (2010, August 31). Uso Histórico: Sacha Inchi Plukenetia Volubilis L. Centro de Información | Repositorio Institucional. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://repositorio.promperu.gob.pe/handle/123456789/1371

Flores, D., & Lock, O. (2012, December). Reassessing the ancient use of Sacha inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L) for nutrition, health, and cosmetics. ResearchGate. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286670270_Reassessing_the_ancient_use_of_
sacha_inchi_Plukenetia_volubilis_L_for_nutrition_health_and_cosmetics

Kodahl, N. (2020, March 17). Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.)-from lost crop of the Incas to part of the solution to global challenges? - planta. SpringerLink. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00425-020-03377-3

Kodahl, N., & Sørensen, M. (2021, May 25). Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.) is an underutilized crop with a great potential. MDPI. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/11/6/1066/htm

Supriyanto, S., Imran, Z., Ardiansyah, R., Auliyai, B., Pratama, A., & Kadha, F. (2022, March 4). The effect of cultivation conditions on Sacha Inchi (Plukenetia Volubilis L.) seed production and Oil Quality (Omega 3, 6, 9). MDPI. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.mdpi.com/2073-4395/12/3/636/htm

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
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3. Salvia hispanica: A Source of Strength Traditionally a key component in Aztec and Mexican culture, chia seeds have been used for centuries for their nutritional, decorative, and medicinal qualities. A common staple in many cultures around the world, these tiny seeds pack a powerful punch and are enjoyed by fitness enthusiasts everywhere. While the seeds themselves are easily recognizable, less well known is their source: a plant known as Salvia hispanica. This flowering, annual herb has a fascinating history and distinctive morphological traits that have evolved over time due to human cultivation. By exploring the myriad ways that this plant has interacted with people over the course of history, we can gain a greater appreciation of how chia seeds have been an important source of strength and inspiration for many. By Joshua Matsuda, Sarah Hoffman, Julia Lindner #Chia
4. Breadfruit: The Intrepid Fruit's Journey with Indigenous Peoples and Colonization Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) is an intrepid dicot with a rich history and culture surrounding it. Breadfruit trees are a single-trunked tree with a spreading, evergreen canopy. Breadfruit trees are monoecious with both the male and female flowers on the same tree. The male flowers are club shaped, and the female flowers are thousands of small flowers with 2 anthers around a spongy core. The name is derived from the Greek words bread and fruit (artos = bread & karpos = fruit). There are over 2,000 documented names because of its widely spread distribution across the Pacific. A. altilis originated from the South Pacific and was later spread throughout Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia by voyagers. As a result, breadfruit is adapted to a wide variety of climates and conditions in equatorial lowlands. In addition, breadfruit trees thrive in humid tropics and can grow in a variety of soils. Breadfruit became a staple crop because of its nutritional and medicinal value. In the 1700s, breadfruit’s ease of maintenance and nutritional value made it a prime crop, in the eyes of colonizers, to feed African slaves in the Caribbean. Today, breadfruit continues to have an important role in sustainability, fighting malnutrition, and increasing food security. There are research efforts to increase the nutritional value and initiatives to promote breadfruit cultivation in tropical and subtropical regions. For example, The National Tropical Botanical Garden established the Breadfruit Institute in 2003 in hopes of promoting the study of breadfruit for agroforestry, reforestation, global food security and economic development. #Angelica Soriano and Bucky Squier
5. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
7. Irvingia Gabonensis: The Untapped Diversity of Dika Plant Irvingia gabonensis is a multipurpose, undomesticated fruit tree native to West and Central Africa. Belonging to the family of Irvingiaceae, this evergreen tree species can grow to a height of 40 meters and attain a diameter of about 120 centimeters. The tree produces mango-like fruits that are well known for their nutritious kernels. Even though the fruit of this plant is also referred to as the African bush mango, the plant has no connection to the actual mango fruit. The dika tree can be found in the dry and wet tropical zones such as Nigeria, Angola, Uganda, Congo, Cameroon, Ghana, Togo, and Benin. It is also known to grow in farmland areas, semi-deciduous forests, and gallery forests. Despite its obscurity on the international level, this species should hardly be considered a minor resource. Almost all parts of the plant have a use from its fruit to its bark. Additionally, it serves as a main source of food and income for indigenous groups in Africa such as the Baka tribe from Central Africa. Due to how prized this plant species is, the dika plant is left untouched by the indigenous people when forests are cleared. Once domesticated, the plant can potentially be used to treat the high levels of malnutrition in Africa. Yet, with increasing local and regional demand for the plant’s kernels, the African bush mango has been facing intense exploitation. Additionally, the disappearance of local wildlife such as elephants are affecting the plant’s dispersal. As a result, the I. gabonensis plant has been classified as a highly endangered species. By Ian Morris and Nikhitha Nair #dika
8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Catherine Nordstrom & Ismael Rodriguez #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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