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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes

Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi

Nomenclature and Naming

The linnean binomial nomenclature of this plant is Lupinus mutabilis. Tarwi is in the genus Lupinus and the species is mutabilis. Lupinus is derived from “wolfish” and this refers to the highly organized structure of wolf packs. The term mutabilis is Latin for, mutable, variable, or liable to change. This name could have been chosen because of the variation seen in the colors and seeds that the L. mutabilis plant produces. Some common names for L. mutabilis include: tarwi, chocho, pearl lupin, and Andean lupin. Some of these common names are derived from indigenous naming; called tarwi by the Quechua people and tauri by the Aymara people.

Evolutionary History

L. mutabilis is hypothesized to descend from the wild ancestral parent, L. piurensis. This is hypothesized due to the morphological similarities between L. mutabilis and L. piurensis. Similar morphological traits include glaucous stems, palmate leaf structures, and large colorful flowers. However, a notable difference between the two species is that L. mutabilis has indehiscent pods, large pale seeds, and a higher seed germination rate. It is estimated that L. mutabilis split from its progenitor L. piurensis at around 2600 BP, BP refers to “before present,” also notated as 650 BC. This crop is hypothesized to have been domesticated in the Cajamarca region in Northern Peru. The first archeological evidence of L. mutabilis was found in the Mantaro Valley in Central Peru and dated back to 1800 BP. There has been recent evolutionary history within the L. mutabilis species with the cultivation of new varieties with low alkaloid content. Alkaloids make the taste of the seeds bitter, and seeds would have to be thoroughly washed to remove the flavor. So this led to an interest in breeding a variety of L. mutabilis with low alkaloid content, called L. mutabilis Sweet.

This phylogenetic tree compares the similarities between different lupine species found in the “New World.” This phylogeny documents the appearance of important traits such as digitated leaves and if it is an annual, survive one year, or perennial, survive two years, species. The phylogeny indicates that L. mutabilis has traits of digitated leaves, leaves in the shape of a palm with ‘digits,’ and is an annual species that sprout from seed and dies in one yearly cycle. L. mutabilis shares the trait of digitates leaves with many other Western New World lupine species.

Ecology and Life History

This crop is in the Fabaceae legume family and is an annual crop that dies off after producing bean pods. It is believed to have been domesticated in northern Peru due to its cultivation history that is heavily dependent on the high altitude of the Andes. It usually grows at higher altitudes ranging from 800 to 3000 meters. Although mildly resistant to drought and frosts, prolonged seasons with both will kill the crop.

The growing period lasts anywhere from 150-360 days, and the exact time length depends on the environment. This includes climate, altitude, and how these interact with the genetics of the plant. Development is much like other lupine species, including emergence from the seed, first leaf development, flower development, and pod/seed development. Tawri seeds have a short germination period, producing shoots within days. The flowers develop in mounds, and these mounds are actually flower clusters called a raceme. Raceme are separate flowers attached almost equidistantly by stalks connected to a central stem. A young tarwi plant will have raceme that are just developing, or with only flowers at the base of the stalk fully open, with unopened buds towards the top of the cluster. A mature tarwi plant will have a fully blooming raceme and developing seed pods. It also grows short, branched taproots that interact with rhizobia as the plant ages. Rhizobia are bacteria that exist in the soil that develop symbiotic relationships with legumes by establishing themselves inside the root nodules of the plants. They fix nitrogen that becomes available to the plant and surrounding plants once inside these root nodules, something these plants and bacteria cannot do independently otherwise. Successful inoculation with this bacteria is associated with higher yields. It can enrich the soil with nitrogen that would benefit not only L. mutabilis but other crops grown in rotations with it.

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

L. mutabilis has indeterminate growth patterns, meaning that, unlike other plants that stop growing in maturity, tarwi continues growing in height/width. It is also a plant with sympodial branching. It can be a very tall plant, with heights ranging from 0.5-2.8 meters. The leaves are typical and have a palmate structure. One leaf can be divided into 5-12 leaflets, which are lanceolate or oval in shape. A mature tarwi plant’s flowers are blue and purple, with small white banners and a touch of yellow-orange at the center. They grow in long mounds that extend above the rest of the plant. The plant develops seed pods anywhere from 5-10 cm in length. The seeds are about 5 mm in diameter and range from white to black, with mottled varieties of white with brown/black.

Tarwi flowers are arranged in an inflorescence structure that is a highly ordered cluster of flowers along the stem. These flowers come in various colors ranging between white and purple, but tarwi is mainly known for its purple color, which can be used for dyes. These flowers also have yellow banners. The morphology of these flowers includes five petals and corollas that reach between one to two centimeters in length. These flowers are predominately self-pollinating, but they can be cross-pollinated. After pollination, the plant produces bean pods with large seeds that are indehiscent and do not break apart. Each seedpod typically contains four to five seeds. The seeds produced by the L. mutabilis crop contain alkaloids which make them bitter, sometimes toxic, and unfavorable to pathogens and predators.

Historical Accounts

The history of Lupinus mutabilis is less documented than other Lupine species found in the Old World. Although the history of L. mutabilis needs more research, there is still archeological evidence documenting its importance. Tarwi has been cultivated in the Andes for at least 1500 years. There have been archeological findings of Lupinis scattered around Peru. Some evidence of tarwi has been found in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. The first finding of L. mutabilis was in Montaro Valley in central Peru and dated back to 1800 BP (Before Present). There have also been archeological findings of a ceremonial vessel from the pre-Inca period that has drawings of tarwi on it. Other than archeological findings, there is recorded evidence of the cultivation of these Lupines through Spanish tax records following the colonization of the New World. This Spanish tax record suggests that tarwi was grown at a large scale, approximated to be 10,000 hectares compared to the modern cultivation of 5,200 hectares in the 1980s.

Nutritional Value and Consumption

The seeds of the tarwi plant are consumed in different dishes. Tarwi contains high protein (46–48%) and oil (16–23%) contents and low amounts of starch. They are comparable to soybeans in their protein content, making them an ideal replacement plant for animal consumption. For these seeds to be edible, they must be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids in the beans. Otherwise, the beans will be bitter and unpleasant to eat. The beans are then ready to be consumed after being soaked. The texture of the beans is firm and smooth with a nutty taste. These beans have been used in dishes such as ceviche, which is served cold, salads, and soups. These seeds can then be pressed to make an oil that has health benefits. The oil in tarwi seeds contains Oleic and Linoleic acid. Oleic acid is an omega-9 fatty acid that lowers cholesterol and decreases the risk of heart disease. Linoleic acid has similar properties in that it also reduces the risk of heart disease. These acids in the tarwi oil make it a beneficial oil to consume. In addition to consuming the oil, tarwi has also been sold as flour that can be used in making baked goods. Other than consuming the tarwi seeds, the flowers of this plant have also been used to create dyes.

Domestication and Cultivation

The history of South American lupines is interesting due to its complexity and lack of clarity until recently. This is due to the lack of research on the lupine species of the Andes, which have not benefited from a deep understanding of their domestication. All domesticated lupines share similar characteristics that make them favorable for agriculture, including nitrogen fixation and edible parts of the plant. However, L. mutabilis specifically has been relatively hidden, leaving the rest of its history prior to and during domestication to be a mystery. In a recent study by Atchinson et al, researchers collaborated to uncover more about the domestication history of tarwi. The results showed to support that L. mutabilis forms a monophyletic group that is within the clade of L. piurensis, making L. piurensis the most likely living descendant of the original parent plant of tarwi. Additionally, archeological evidence shows that the first tarwi lupine seeds found that is tarwi as we know it today, and not just another wild lupine, is found in a site in Mantaro Valley. This dates back to 1800 BP, and the researchers, therefore, make the estimate that tarwi was domesticated sometime between 1800 BP and 3450 BP by the pre-Incan people of the Andes.

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Historically, tarwi cultivation has been done only in high elevation areas ranging from 1650 and 3300 meters, such as the Andean highlands. For most of its history, L. mutabilis has been solely cultivated by Andean civilizations, with archeological evidence that it was cultivated by pre-Incan and Incan peoples. Today, it is still Andean growers that grow most of the tarwi grown in the world. Laborers are usually locals that know the crop and live in close proximity to the fields. While there have been recent investments in establishing tarwi cultivation in Europe, these developments are fairly recent and have not yet boomed like other Andean staple crops like quinoa and potatoes. L. mutabilis can be cultivated in rotation with other crops such as potatoes and cereals, as well as other plants that would benefit from its nitrogen fixation abilities. Harvest usually occurs 150-300 days after germination, with the seed pods being almost dry. The yield per hectare is about 500 to 1000 kg under good conditions.

Human Experience and Future Uses

This crop has been vital to those native to the Andes. The tarwi plant was cultivated extensively in the past due to its high protein and oil content. The tarwi plant flourished in poor soil due to its ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, and it was often used in crop cycling with other Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. These factors make tarwi a dependable plant. While tarwi is a crop that many have forgotten, people are now actively looking to cultivate it more. There have been community projects centered around the rural cultivation of tarwi in Peru, where the income from these new markets goes back to the Quechua community. The project is centered around giving Quechua women the skills to cultivate tarwi. This project strengthens women's role in their families as they receive income from this cultivation and food that they can bring back to their families. This project aims to help the Quechua people in the province of Huayalas fight against poverty and malnutrition. Outside of South America, tarwi is being recognized as a nutritional crop that can be a replacement for meat. International use could help to shift away from relying on animal consumption and decrease the use of soybeans as a more economical option.

References

Aïnouche, A., Bayer, R.J., & Misset, M.T. (2004). Molecular phylogeny, diversification and character evolution in Lupinus (Fabaceae) with special attention to Mediterranean and African lupines. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 246, 211-222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-004-0149-8

Atchison, G., Nevado, B., Eastwood, R., Contreras-Ortiz, N., Reynel-Rodríguez, C., Madriñán, S., Filatov, D., & Hughes, C. (2016). Lost crops of the Incas: Origins of domestication of the Andean pulse crop tarwi, Lupinus mutabilis. American Journal of Botany, 103. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1600171

Carvajal-Larenas, F. E., Linnemann, A. R., Nout, M. J. R., Koziol, M., & van Boekel, M. A. J. S. (2016). Lupinus mutabilis: Composition, Uses, Toxicology, and Debittering. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(9), 1454–1487. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.772089

Chalampuente-Flores, D., Bastidas, C. T., & Sørensen, M. (n.d.). The Andean Lupine-‘El Chocho’ or ‘Tarwi’ (Lupinus Mutabilis Sweet). 6.

Cowling, W., Buirchell, B., & Tapia, M. (1998). Lupin. Lupinus spp. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 23.

Croyle, L. (2019, October 23). Foods of Peru: What is Tarwi and How to Eat it. Traveling and Living in Peru. https://www.livinginperu.com/foods-of-peru-what-is-tarwi-and-how-to-eat-it/

Dtarazona. (2009). Español: Ceviche de chochos. Huari, Ancash, Perú. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8023297

Gulisano, A., Alves, S., Martins, J. N., & Trindade, L. M. (2019). Genetics and Breeding of Lupinus mutabilis: An Emerging Protein Crop. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpls.2019.01385

Hondelmann, W. The lupin — ancient and modern crop plant. Theoret. Appl. Genetics 68, 1–9 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00252301

How tarwi is improving Andean women’s living conditions. (2015, September 6). LifeGate. https://www.lifegate.com/tarwi-andean-women

Klowo_645_fullsize.jpg (841×1200). (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://storage.googleapis.com/powop-assets/lowo/KLOWO_645_fullsize.jpg

Tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) – Cultivariable. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.cultivariable.com/instructions/other-vegetables/how-to-grow-tarwi/

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Puno%2C_Peru_%28February_2015%29.JPG

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
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5. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
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8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Catherine Nordstrom & Ismael Rodriguez #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
26. Lorem Ipsum: The Fake Latin Text Substitute Elementum facilisis leo vel fringilla est ullamcorper eget nulla facilisi etiam dignissim diam quis enim lobortis scelerisque fermentum dui faucibus in ornare quam viverra orci sagittis eu volutpat odio facilisis mauris sit amet massa vitae tortor condimentum lacinia quis vel eros donec ac odio tempor orci dapibus ultrices in iaculis nunc sed augue lacus viverra vitae congue eu consequat ac felis donec et odio pellentesque diam volutpat commodo sed egestas egestas fringilla phasellus faucibus scelerisque eleifend donec pretium vulputate sapien nec sagittis aliquam malesuada bibendum arcu vitae elementum curabitur vitae nunc sed velit dignissim sodales ut eu sem integer vitae justo eget magna fermentum iaculis eu non diam phasellus vestibulum lorem sed risus ultricies tristique nulla aliquet enim tortor at auctor urna nunc id cursus metus aliquam eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin aliquam ultrices sagittis orci a scelerisque purus semper eget duis at tellus at urna condimentum mattis pellentesque id nibh tortor id aliquet lectus proin nibh nisl condimentum id venenatis a condimentum vitae sapien pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas sed tempus urna et pharetra pharetra massa massa ultricies mi quis hendrerit dolor magna eget est lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipiscing elit pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas integer eget aliquet nibh praesent tristique magna sit amet purus gravida quis blandit turpis cursus in hac habitasse platea dictumst quisque sagittis purus sit amet volutpat consequat mauris nunc congue nisi vitae suscipit tellus. By Lorem Ipsum #lorem #ipsum

Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes

Nomenclature and Naming

Evolutionary History

Ecology and Life History

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

Historical Accounts

Nutritional Value and Consumption

Domestication and Cultivation

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Human Experience and Future Uses

References

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Contents of this tag:

This page references:

Nomenclature and Naming

​​​​​Evolutionary History

Ecology and Life History

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

Historical Accounts

Nutritional Value and Consumption

Domestication and Cultivation

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Human Experience and Future Uses

References

This page has paths:

Contents of this tag:

This page references:

Evolutionary History