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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Carob: From Pod to Pantry

Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob

Nomenclatural History

The scientific name Ceratonia siliqua L. is derived from the Greek work keras, meaning “horn”, and the Latin word siliqua, which refers to the shape and fitness of the pod. And, of course, the L. is in reference to Carl Linnaeus. The binomial name was first recorded by Linnaeus in Species Plantarum 2 in May 1753, with a locality of Apulia and Sicily (Italy), Crete (Greece), Cyprus, Syria, and Palestine. The designated lectotype is located at the Linnean Society of London Herbarium (Missouri Botanical Garden, n.d.). The common name for this plant is carob, and has its roots in ancient Mediterranean/Middle Eastern cultures. Carob originates from the Hebrew word kharuv, which means “locust”. This relates to two other common colloquial names for carob: St. John’s bread and locust bean. These two names stem from the biblical references to St. John the Baptist’s consumption of locusts during his travels. The “locusts” he was consuming were likely actually the pods from carob trees, hence the adoption of common names that have to do with the word locust. As the carob tree spread throughout the Mediterranean and other parts of the globe, other names were adopted in the new regions, such as the Arabic kharrūb, Spanish algarrobo or garrofero, Italian carrubo, and many more (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 9).

Evolution & Domestication

Evolutionary History
Ceratonia siliqua is a member of the Leguminosae family, the third largest angiosperm family and possibly originating in the late Cretaceous period (110.5-66 mya). (Wojciechowski et al, 2004 ). Within this classification, carob belongs to the subfamily Caesalpinioideae which, along with the other two Leguminosae clades (Mimosoideae and Papilionoideae), is evidenced to have been present since the Eocene (55.8-33.9 mya) (Wojciechowski et al, 2004). C. siliqua is then a member of the Caesalpinioideae subfamily that diverged even further into a smaller group known as the Umtiza Clade, to which C. siliqua belongs. The use of fossil records has allowed researchers to estimate that the Umtiza Clade was likely present as far back as the Late Paleocene, dating it to about 56.5 mya, making it one of the oldest Caesalpinioid clades. (Bruneau et al, 2008).

It was long thought that C. siliqua was the only member of the genus Ceratonia, but in the mid-1900s another species of the Ceratonia genus was discovered: C. oreothauma, which is native to Arabia and Somalia. C. oreothauma has been proposed as the potential wild ancestor of the cultivated C. siliqua due to its smaller, less evolved pollen form. It is distinct from the cultivated species since its flowers are strictly unisexual. (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 9, 14).

Domestication History
The origin and domestication history of carob remains unclear. Paleobotanical and archaeological evidence of pollen grains, seeds, and wood charcoal dating back to the Paleolithic (as far as 40,000 BCE) and Neolithic ages led researchers to suspect that carob originated in the East Mediterranean basin long before the start of agriculture. Notably, little to no prehistoric evidence has been found in other parts of the Mediterranean basin. Linguistic evidence and historical literature led to the proposition that the domestication and spread of carob originated in the East Mediterranean and occurred with the introduction of scion grafting during Roman times (Zohary, 2002).

However, comprehensive phylogeographic research based on genetic data done over the past several years has deduced that the carob likely originated in a biogeographic region in southwest Morocco. Overall, it was found that carob domestication has been propelled mostly by the local selection and dissemination of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events of domesticated varieties by humans (likely Romans or Arabs), in contrast to what was previously proposed. Plastid data revealed a low human influence on the main current patterns of genetic diversity and structure of the carob tree across the Mediterranean. Genome-wide diversity and phylogenetic reconstructions have revealed that the carob tree followed two main routes of migration from its origin in southern Morocco. One migration went northward, reaching western north Africa and south Spain. The other migration path went east and gave rise to central-eastern carob evolutionary units, or geographically homogenous genetic groups of carob populations (Baumel et al., 2021).

Though researchers are still uncovering the origins and history of carob domestication, its spread in recent times is known. In the early to mid-1800s, it was introduced to Mediterranean-like regions such as California, Arizona, Mexico, Chile, and Argentina by Spanish missionaries, to Australia by Mediterranean emigrants, and to South Africa and India by the English. Cultivars of carob were brought on a larger scale to the US and California in particular in 1854 by the US Patent Patent Office and again in the 1950s to San Diego County (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 7, 20, 21).

Ecology & Life History

Carobs are well suited to warm temperate or subtropical Mediterranean areas with temperatures ranging from 30-40°C, and can tolerate more hot and humid coastal climates. Consequently they are sensitive to the cold. Their main limitation is their low frost-tolerance, as young trees can be killed by frosts reaching temperatures of at least -4°C or 24.8°F. They can adapt to a wide range of soils including poor, sandy soils, rocky, calcareous hillsides, or deep soils. They are highly drought resistant, though like all crops require irrigation if grown commercially (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 48, 49, 63). In the wild, carob shelter, foliage, and pods attract browsing animals, which in turn spread seeds to other areas (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 26). In California, the carob tree thrives in areas such as the Imperial and Coachella Valleys that experience extreme heat and mild winters. In southern Europe it has been reported that carob thrives when in vicinity of the sea, but this does not hold in California, where it has been observed that trees closer to the coast do not produce as much fruit (Condit et al., 1919).

It generally takes about 6-7 years before a carob tree produces its first seed crop, so they do not necessarily begin making consumable products right away. However, they have great longevity, living and producing for 100 years or more (LEAF Network, 2016). Carobs are evergreen trees, so they do not have a season when they lose their leaves. Interestingly, carob is the only Mediterranean tree with a fall flowering season. The main flowering season of the carob is in autumn, usually from about September to November, sometimes longer. Further, this time and length can differ depending on local climate conditions These flowers are then shed mainly from October to December, slowing during January to February, and then almost never occurring from June to August (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 16, 18).

Pods normally ripen from October to December, remaining on the tree for weeks if they are not gathered (Condit et al., 1919). If one is interested in harvesting the pods to be used for their moist pulp, they should be picked in the spring while they are still green and not yet fully ripe because at this stage the pulp will still be very sweet. On the other hand, if the desire is for the pods to be milled and made into a powder, then one should observe the tree in late summer and harvest pods that easily snap, indicating that they are dry enough to be milled (“Carob- …”, 2022).

Morphology

Vegetative Morphology
Carob is a sclerophyllous evergreen shrub or tree with a thick trunk with rough bark, and sturdy branches that may grow up to approximately 10 m high, though wild trees may grow a few meters taller (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 10). Some features of sclerophyllous trees include hard, leathery leaves and short internodal distances, which allow them to adapt to long periods of drought and heat (Alm, 2016). The leaves of the carob tree are 10-20 cm long, alternate, pinnately compound with 4-10 oppositely arranged pairs of leaflets, with or without a terminal leaflet. Each leaflet is 3-7 cm long, ovate or elliptic, dark green on the top with slightly undulate margins. The sclerophyllous leaves have a thick epidermis layer to protect from water loss (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 10). Carob trees also have a broad, semi-spherical crown that requires low maintenance and are valued as an ornamental shade tree throughout California, Australia, and elsewhere. However, their strong, extensive root system that allows them to adapt to dry conditions in the wild are considered invasive in landscaping (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 28).

Reproductive Morphology
Most carob trees are dioecious with female and male flowers on separate trees, though a small number are hermaphroditic. The prevalence of flower types varies by region. For example, hermaphrodite trees are found more frequently in the Mediterranean Spanish coast than in Southern Spain, though they are still rare with respect to male and female trees. Generally, the flowers are 6-12 mm long, arranged along an inflorescence axis in racemes, with coloration that ranges from green to red. They display radial symmetry with no petals and a disc-shaped calyx consisting of 5 hairy sepals. Flowers typically begin bisexual but one sex is repressed during later development, hence the presence of rudimentary stamens or pistils on females or males, respectively. All three types have a nectarial disc, though females produce the highest volume of nectar (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 12).

Female flowers feature a fully developed pistil that is 6-8.5 cm long with 2 stigmatic lobes, 2 carpals, and 5 rudimentary stamens. Male flowers have 5 stamens and a central rudimentary pistil. The filaments may either be of either short or long type, while the anthers may range from yellow to red. Hermaphrodite flowers are a combination of both male and female types with a fully developed pistil and 5 fully developed stamens (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 12, 14).

The carob fruit is an indehiscent pod or legume 10-30 cm long, 1.5-3.5 cm wide, and about 1 cm thick; they are compressed, with a straight or curved shape depending on the cultivar. Pods are soft and green but become hard, brown, and leathery upon ripening. Carob pods have two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The pulp consists of an outer, dark and leathery pericarp and an inner, soft mesocarp that separates the seeds. The seeds range from 8-10 mm long, 7-8 mm wide, and 3-5 mm thick. They are composed of a hard external coat, an embryo/germ, and the endosperm (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 12, 24).

Cultivation Practices

Cultivars
There are less than 50 cultivars described in the world, many of which are locally distributed. Over 18 carob cultivars are grown throughout Spain, while others are located in Italy, Portugal, Morocco, Greece, Cyprus, Turkey, Israel, USA, and Australia. Regional cultivars show a high degree of genetic variation for traits such as pod size, shape, and quality, seed yield, pest and disease resistance, productivity, sugar content, or gum content. However, most commercially grown cultivars have traditionally been selected for a large pod size as well as a high pulp and sugar content, which distinguishes them from their wild counterparts. Pulp and seed content are negatively correlated so growers have selected against seed yield. The most common cultivars in orchards are female, as hermaphrodites are never the main producing trees. Thus, male and hermaphrodite trees are typically planted in orchards as sources of pollen (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 22, 30-32).

Cultivation Methods
Going hand in hand with the carob’s success in semi-arid climates, carob trees prefer well-drained soil. The maximum precipitation requirement for carob trees is 20-23 inches, but they can thrive and produce high yields when receiving as low as 12-14 inches of rain (Hills, 1980). With that said, even though the tree does not need much water, best results are achieved when some additional irrigation water is provided.

Like many other cultivated fruit trees, domesticated carob trees are typically propagated asexually as opposed to the sexual cross-pollination that occurs in wild counterparts (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 22). Carob may be propagated by seed, budding, veneer grafting, cutting, or air layering. However carob seeds have a very hard coat which must be removed in order for germination to occur successfully. Seedlings are used as rootstocks for grafting, which is currently the most common method of propagation. The seedling rootstocks should be budded 1 year after germination in a nursery or 2 years after being planted in an orchard. Vegetative propagation with cuttings is not commercially available, and they have been described as extremely difficult to root (Gubbuk et al., 2011).

Harvesting Methods
Carob pods may be harvested at different times of the year depending on the cultivar and their intended post-harvest use. Most are harvested at the end of summer or beginning of autumn (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 60). However, the methods for gathering the pods are pretty much the same and are fairly simplistic though they require much labor. In order to gather the pods from the trees, they should be prodded off the tree with a pole and are usually collected in nets or sheeting placed under the tree to catch them as they fall on the ground. If the harvested pods are dried properly, they can be stored for up to a year. One simply must lay them out in the sun and some sort of sheet for about two days to lower the moisture content. Then it is simply a matter of storing the pods in dry conditions while they await milling or any other intended use (“Carob”, 2022).

Traditionally, carob orchards were hardly fertilized as carob is extremely well-adapted to poor soils. However in more recent times, mineral or organic fertilizers have been applied (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 57). Intercropping with other early-bearing fruit and nut trees such as peach or almond are sometimes implemented in orchard design. Unlike many other fruit and nut trees, carob trees require minimal pruning after the basic framework of the tree is established. However, carob has a slow growth rate with a long vegetative phase (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 54, 55, 57). In fact, carob trees do not reach their full bearing production until they are around 20-25 years old, after which pod yield stabilizes. Additionally carob shows biennial or alternate bearing, meaning each year it alternates between a high yield or a low yield (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 59).

Consumption & Nutritional Value

Carob is commonly known and utilized as a cacao substitute to its high sugar content (48-56%) and lack of theobromine and caffeine. Currently, the main use is for galactomannan gum extraction. However, carob pods are an excellent source of bioactive compounds and contain low levels of fat (0.2-0.6%). To get a better idea of the nutritional value carob offers and its wide variety of uses in food, it’s convenient to split it into its two components. As mentioned previously, the carob fruit can be split upon crushing the pod into the pulp and the seeds, which approximately make up 90% and 10% of the pod’s weight, respectively (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 23).

Pulp
The pulp can be ground into large pieces called kibbles, or ground into powder. Kibbles are typically used for animal feed, carob syrup or liqueur, while the powder is used as a cacao substitute or flour for baked goods or sweets. The pulp can also be roasted whole and eaten as a snack (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 26-27). Carob pulp is high in sugar content (48-56%), but also contains cyclitols, fiber, polyphenols such as tannins, amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The main cyclitol in the pulp is D-pinitol, which has anti-diabetic effects due to the compound's ability to increase insulin sensitivity and regulate blood sugar levels. The fiber and polyphenols in carob are also known to enhance lipid metabolism, lower total and LDL cholesterol to counter hyperlipidemia, and produce anticancer effects that involve anti-tumor, anti-proliferative, and proapoptotic activity. The main polyphenols are tannins, which have anti-diarrheal effects. Carob pulp is also considered a good source of amino acids by the World Health Organization as it contains all 7 essential amino acids at levels that meet their standards. Carob is also a strong source of calcium, and potassium, though it also contains other nutritionally important minerals such as iron, copper, zinc, or manganese (Goulas et al., 2016). Some prominent vitamins in carob pulp include vitamin E, D, C, niacin (B3), B6, and folic acid (B9), with lower levels of A, B2, and B12 (Papaefstathiou et al., 2018).

Seeds
Upon de-hulling the seeds, they are composed of the embryo, which is used in germ meal, and the endosperm. The endosperm is ground into carob bean gum (CBG) also known as locust bean gum (LBG), which is the most common use of commercially grown carob. LBG is used as a stabilizer, thickener, or a binder and gelling agent in a wide variety of food products such as ice creams, soups, sauces, cheese, pies, canned meats, or pet food (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 26-28). Germ meal is high in protein content (50%), while LBG is also used for pharmaceutical purposes due to its inhibition of gastrointestinal diseases like gastroesophageal reflux (Batlle & Tous, 1997, p. 24; Goulas et al., 2016).

Ultimately, carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. More clinical research on its mechanisms and benefits in humans is needed, though the results of previous and ongoing studies are encouraging (Goulas et al., 2016).

Human Experience

Historical Applications
As mentioned earlier, carob is a very ancient species, with not only genetic and fossil evidence of its existence, but also cultural evidence as well. For example, carob was present in Mesopotamian culture and was even referenced in “The Epic of Gilgamesh”, the oldest existing work of literature known to exist. Part of the Epic tells of Gilgamesh’s quest to find Utnapishtim, a once-mortal man who was made immortal by the gods, and learn the secret to eternal life. Part of his journey involves venturing through a tunnel that runs under Mount Mashu and emerging into the “Garden of the Gods”. This garden is full of “jewel trees” that bear precious stones instead of fruit, and in certain versions of the story, one of the types of trees he encountered in this garden was a carob with “abashmu-stone, agate and haematite” (Daniel, 2012).

This mention of the carob tree in the “Epic of Gilgamesh” is only one example of carob’s rich history. Carob also has strong historical roots in ancient Egyptian culture. Carob pods and seeds have been found in Egyptian tombs, while the gummy pectin from carob seeds was used in the process of mummification (Cretacarob, 2020). Additionally, the Egyptian hieroglyph meaning “sweet” is a depiction of a carob pod (Vakulenko, 2019). Additionally, most everyone has heard of the term “carat” that is used as a measurement for precious stones, but what you may not know is that this term actually traces back to the Middle Eastern practice of weighing precious gemstones against carob seeds as a measure of purity (Vakulenko, 2019). Because carob seeds are generally very uniform in size and weight (about 0.20 g), they served as the perfect reliable object to which items of unknown mass could be compared. Thus, the term “carat” was created as a unit of measurement and has endured to this day.

Future Applications
The carob tree has great potential for expanded utilization in the future. As aforementioned, carob trees are suited to dry, arid regions and require very little water to survive and produce fruit. This makes them the ideal candidate for application as an ecosystem-restoring plant and combatant to the effects of climate change. Researchers have already begun to see this potential and have started looking into the prospects of using carob trees to restore degraded and marginalized lands in the Mediterranean. According to one study, an estimated 1.32 million km² of land in the Mediterranean region is undergoing desertification and groundwater reserves are significantly diminishing (Winer, 1980). This is where carob would come into play. Carob trees require light to no irrigation, increase soil moisture levels, reduce surface water runoff and soil erosion, and, as a perk, offer economic incentives as they produce fruit, timber, and livestock fodder (Winer, 1980). As the effects of global warming and climate change continue to grow and affect more and more regions, carob trees offer a very feasible option for habitat restoration in regions with low water supply.

In addition to needing little water, carob trees are also well-suited for dry regions because they act as a very effective fire barrier. Because the carob tree is an evergreen species, their xylems contain large quantities of water in order to keep the plant alive during dry seasons. This, along with its thick, leathery sclerophyllous leaves, makes it more difficult to catch fire and burn, and thus a great tree for areas prone to wildfires (Srečec et al, 2017). It is a very well known fact that the frequency and severity of wildfires across the globe -including here in California- are increasing significantly. Thus, the idea of planting less flammable species in fire-prone regions is something that should be taken into great consideration and is another example of a future use for carob trees.

Further, while carob trees are currently being taken advantage of for a wide variety of commercial uses, there is still room for an expanded market. Over the past fifty years, carob production worldwide has decreased quite significantly, due partly to low pod prices making the cultivation less economically worthwhile (“Carob …”, 2022). World production of carob is around 310,000 tons and is mainly isolated to countries in the Mediterranean region (Spain, Italy, Portugal, Morocco, Greece, etc.), with a few other scattered producing regions in locations such as Australia, California, and South Africa (“Carob …”, 2022). However, popularity of carob products is beginning to rise as more manufacturers and consumers are becoming aware of its health benefits and plethora of commercial applications, so this leaves the door open to market expansion and may hopefully lead to an increase in carob tree cultivation in the coming years.

References

1. Alm, M. (2016, September 2). Sclerophyllous plants. What are sclerophyllous plants. Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.jardineriaon.com/en/sclerophyll-plants.html

2. Batlle, I., & Tous, J. (1997). Carob tree: Ceratonia Siliqua L. International Plant Genetic Resources Institute.

3. Baumel, A., Feliner, G. N., Medail, F., Malfa, S. L., Diguardo, M., Boudagher-Kharrat, M., Mirleau, F., Frelon, V., Ouahmane, L., Diadema, K., Sanguin, H., & Viruel, J. (2021). Genome-wide footprints in the carob tree (Ceratonia Siliqua) unveil a new domestication pattern of fruit trees in the Mediterranean. https://doi.org/10.22541/au.163344873.38613513/v1

4. Bruneau, A., Mercure, M., Lewis, G. P., & Herendeen, P. S. (2008). Phylogenetic patterns and diversification in the caesalpinioid legumes. Botany, 86(7), 697-718. https://doi.org/10.1139/B08-058

5. Carob- An Ancient Food Tree. (2022). Gardening in South Africa. Retrieved from https://www.gardeninginsouthafrica.co.za/carob-an-ancient-food-tree?highlight=WyJjYXJvYiIsInRyZWUiLCJ0cmVlJyIsInRyZWUnLCIsInRyZWUncyIsIid0cmVlIiwiY2Fyb2IgdHJlZSJd

6. Condit, I. J., Jaffa, M. E., Albro, F. W. . (1919). The carob in California. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press.

7. Cretacarob (2020). Carob: The Black Gold of History. Retrieved from https://cretacarob.com/en/blog/news/to-charoypi-o-mayros-chrysos-tis-istorias/

8. Daniel, Mark (2012). Inheritance: Covenants, Kingdoms, Bodies and Nations. (n.d.). (n.p.): Lulu.com, 45

9. Goulas, V., Stylos, E., Chatziathanasiadou, M. V., Mavromoustakos, T., & Tzakos, A. G. (2016). Functional Components of Carob Fruit: Linking the Chemical and Biological Space. International journal of molecular sciences, 17(11), 1875. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17111875

10. Gubbuk, H., Gunes, E., Ayala-Silva, T., & Ercisli, S. (2011). Rapid vegetative propagation method for carob. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca, 39(1), 251–254. https://doi.org/10.15835/nbha3916074

11. Hills, L. D. (1980) The Cultivation Of The Carob Tree (Ceratonia Siliqua), International Tree Crops Journal, 1:1, 27-36, https://doi.org/10.1080/01435698.1980.9752712

12. LEAF Network. (November 2016) Carob: Ceratonia siliqua L. https://leafnetworkaz.org/resources/PLANT%20PROFILES/Carob_profile.pdf

13. Missouri Botanical Garden. (n.d.). Tropicos. Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://tropicos.org/name/13028551

14. Papaefstathiou, E., Agapiou, A., Giannopoulos, S., & Kokkinofta, R. (2018). Nutritional characterization of carobs and traditional carob products. Food Science & Nutrition, 6(8), 2151–2161. https://doi.org/10.1002/fsn3.776

15. Srečec, S., Kremer, D., Karlović, K., Purgar, D. D., & Erhatić, R. (2017). Possible Role of Carob Tree (ceratonia siliqua L.) in Fire Protection of Agro-Forest Systems of Croatian South Adriatic Islands Regarding the Similarities With Other Mediterranean Countries. Sofia: Surveying Geology & Mining Ecology Management (SGEM). https://doi.org/10.5593/sgem2017H/33

16. Vakulenko, Galyna (2019). Tree Spotlight: Carob tree. Canopy Blog. Retrieved from https://canopy.org/blog/tree-spotlight-carob-tree/

17. Winer, N. (1980) The Potential of the Carob (Ceratonia siliqua), International Tree Crops Journal, 1:1, 15-26, https://doi.org/10.1080/01435698.1980.9752711

18. Wojciechowski, M.F., Lavin, M. and Sanderson, M.J. (2004), A phylogeny of legumes (Leguminosae) based on analysis of the plastid matK gene resolves many well-supported subclades within the family. Am. J. Bot., 91: 1846-1862. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.91.11.1846

19. Zohary, D. (2002). Domestication of the carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.). Israel Journal of Plant Sciences, 50(1). https://doi.org/10.1560/bw6b-4m9p-u2ua-c6nn

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2. Moringa oleifera: Domestication Histories and Emerging Deviations from Indian Origin The superfood, Moringa oleifera, has a rich history deeply rooted in its native Indian domestication and usage. Also widely known as “The Miracle Tree”, M. oleifera is often recognized by its white flowers and long-seed pods that are greatly sought after. Not only does M. oleifera provide an incomparable food source and multipurpose oil through its pods, but all parts of the plant may be used and consumed. The versatility of this plant is venerated in Indian culture where its consumption and, most importantly, medicinal usage involve all parts of the plant. Due to its spread across other countries, the species and its utilization have evolved to suit individual cultures and their own domestication desires. In the Philippines and North and South Africa, its nutritional value is greatly relied upon to treat malnourishment, purify water, and support community infrastructure while the Indian native medicinal usage is less emphasized and not well known. The Americas, on the other hand, have increasingly toyed with the novel M. oleifera ‘organic-superfood’ craze that tends to remove emphasis from its cultural value and multipurpose utilization to instead fawn over its supposed energy boosts, skin care implementations, and uses in its powder – likely less effective and increasingly more expensive than the original. Though its original purpose grows increasingly colonized, the domestication ventures globally of this superfood continue the legacy of the Moringa oleifera species itself – marked genetic increases in energy production associated with plastic to nucleus gene duplications. As each nation tends to and selects for various aspects of this energy contribution – whether for the nutritional, medicinal, or vanity value – the variation in these M. oleifera may grow towards eventual speciation. By George Vetushko and Lauren Guevara #drumsticktree
3. Salvia hispanica: A Source of Strength Traditionally a key component in Aztec and Mexican culture, chia seeds have been used for centuries for their nutritional, decorative, and medicinal qualities. A common staple in many cultures around the world, these tiny seeds pack a powerful punch and are enjoyed by fitness enthusiasts everywhere. While the seeds themselves are easily recognizable, less well known is their source: a plant known as Salvia hispanica. This flowering, annual herb has a fascinating history and distinctive morphological traits that have evolved over time due to human cultivation. By exploring the myriad ways that this plant has interacted with people over the course of history, we can gain a greater appreciation of how chia seeds have been an important source of strength and inspiration for many. By Joshua Matsuda, Sarah Hoffman, Julia Lindner #Chia
4. Breadfruit: The Intrepid Fruit's Journey with Indigenous Peoples and Colonization Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) is an intrepid dicot with a rich history and culture surrounding it. Breadfruit trees are a single-trunked tree with a spreading, evergreen canopy. Breadfruit trees are monoecious with both the male and female flowers on the same tree. The male flowers are club shaped, and the female flowers are thousands of small flowers with 2 anthers around a spongy core. The name is derived from the Greek words bread and fruit (artos = bread & karpos = fruit). There are over 2,000 documented names because of its widely spread distribution across the Pacific. A. altilis originated from the South Pacific and was later spread throughout Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia by voyagers. As a result, breadfruit is adapted to a wide variety of climates and conditions in equatorial lowlands. In addition, breadfruit trees thrive in humid tropics and can grow in a variety of soils. Breadfruit became a staple crop because of its nutritional and medicinal value. In the 1700s, breadfruit’s ease of maintenance and nutritional value made it a prime crop, in the eyes of colonizers, to feed African slaves in the Caribbean. Today, breadfruit continues to have an important role in sustainability, fighting malnutrition, and increasing food security. There are research efforts to increase the nutritional value and initiatives to promote breadfruit cultivation in tropical and subtropical regions. For example, The National Tropical Botanical Garden established the Breadfruit Institute in 2003 in hopes of promoting the study of breadfruit for agroforestry, reforestation, global food security and economic development. #Angelica Soriano and Bucky Squier
5. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
7. Irvingia Gabonensis: The Untapped Diversity of Dika Plant Irvingia gabonensis is a multipurpose, undomesticated fruit tree native to West and Central Africa. Belonging to the family of Irvingiaceae, this evergreen tree species can grow to a height of 40 meters and attain a diameter of about 120 centimeters. The tree produces mango-like fruits that are well known for their nutritious kernels. Even though the fruit of this plant is also referred to as the African bush mango, the plant has no connection to the actual mango fruit. The dika tree can be found in the dry and wet tropical zones such as Nigeria, Angola, Uganda, Congo, Cameroon, Ghana, Togo, and Benin. It is also known to grow in farmland areas, semi-deciduous forests, and gallery forests. Despite its obscurity on the international level, this species should hardly be considered a minor resource. Almost all parts of the plant have a use from its fruit to its bark. Additionally, it serves as a main source of food and income for indigenous groups in Africa such as the Baka tribe from Central Africa. Due to how prized this plant species is, the dika plant is left untouched by the indigenous people when forests are cleared. Once domesticated, the plant can potentially be used to treat the high levels of malnutrition in Africa. Yet, with increasing local and regional demand for the plant’s kernels, the African bush mango has been facing intense exploitation. Additionally, the disappearance of local wildlife such as elephants are affecting the plant’s dispersal. As a result, the I. gabonensis plant has been classified as a highly endangered species. By Ian Morris and Nikhitha Nair #dika
8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Catherine Nordstrom & Ismael Rodriguez #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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