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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae)

Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.

Nomenclatural History

Paullinia cupana’s nomenclatural history is tenuous as it has been called guaraná by several indigenous groups throughout the Amazon. Most historians agree that the origin of guaraná’s name comes from the Tupí-Guaraní language but more particularly, the Tupí language as these people lived throughout guaraná’s range (Prance & Nesbitt, 2005). Although, as the Tupí language is extinct, the meaning of the word guaraná comes from the Guaraní word guara-ná which itself has its roots from the Sateré Maué word for the plant, warana. In Guaraní, this can mean either “fruit like the eyes of the gods” or “eyes of the gods” (Prance & Nesbitt, 2005). Other sources found the meaning to be "drink of the Lords" (Atroch et al., 2012). Guaraná was first introduced to Europeans during the late 16^th century when it was brought back to Europe from eastern Brazil by Spanish conquistadors and was formally classified by the German botanist Reinhard Gustav Paul Knuth as Paullinia cupana in 1821 from a specimen collected a decade earlier by the naturalists Humboldt and Bonpland in Venezuela (Hamerski et al., 2013). In 1823, a new species of Paullinia, P. sorbilis, was described by the botanist Karl Martius (IPNI, 2021.) and was noted to have very similar characteristics to P. cupana (Hamerski et al., 2013). Although in 1937, the Brazilian botanist, Adolpho Ducke, placed P. sorbilis as a variety of P. cupana. Then, both P. sorbilis and P. cupana var. sorbilis were circumscribed into P. cupana in 2012 by Acevedo-Rodríguez et al. (2012).

Evolutionary history

Paullinia cupana is part of the soapberry family (Sapindaceae) which contains many known species of plants such as the horse chestnut (Aesculus spp.), maples (Acer spp.), and lychee (Litchi spp.). Within the Sapindaceae, P. cupana is nestled within the monophyletic subfamily Paullinieae which contains the other genera, Thinouia, Lophostigma, Urvillea, Cardiospermum, Serjania, and Paullinia. The genus Paullinia have ca. 220 members that are mostly restricted to neotropical forests. Members of the genus Paullinia have had some controversy in terms of their relationships at the species level. Recent molecular phylogenies have failed to resolve sister taxa to Paullinia due to the lack of resolution from over 327 chloroplast markers for species-level relationships in the genus, even with other genes such as ITS and the trnL intron included (Acevedo-Rodríguez et al., 2017). The most recent phylogeny was constructed using morphological data focusing on laticifers (milky-sap secreting cell found in the leaves and stem) which was able to resolve a few other species (Medina et al., 2021), although only about half of the genus has not been sampled to date (Acevedo-Rodríguez et al., 2017; Medina et al., 2021).

Ecology and life history

Guaraná is a perennial lowland, tropical, woody, climbing shrub that is found throughout northern Amazon regions such as Guyana, Venezuela, and Brazil; in the latter, the plant occurs in the states Amazonas and Pará (Medeiros et al., 2016). The plant generally takes around 5 years to begin producing significant amounts of fruit but can have set fruit by the second year. Pollination is relatively unknown but the general pollination syndrome of guaraná tree seems to be adapted to the Hymenoptera (in particular, bees) and that the species Melipona seminigra, Xylocopa muscaria, and Apis mellifera are among the most important pollinators (Atroch et al., 2012). P. cupana has many wild relatives but the genus is utilized by local peoples where it occurs such that ancestral traits are currently being sorted (Medeiros et al., 2016). An estimated 20% of Paullinia spp. have extensive ethnobotanical uses (Beck, 1990; Brazilian Amazon Consortium for Genomic Research (REALGENE) et al., 2008; Hamerski et al., 2013).

Morphology

Guaraná is a climbing woody shrub to a semi-erect shrub up to ca. 2 meters tall that can be distinguished by the presence of 4-5 deep grooves in the main stem/different branches. The epidermis is dark green and is woody near the base. The guaraná leaves are distichously arranged, pinnately 5-foliate, and can measure up to 40 cm in length at maturity. Inflorescences are thyrses which can be solitary, racemiform, or axillary. The flowers are partially single sexed with some staminate flowers, while the others are hermaphroditic. The fruit is a bright red capsule with a black colored seed partially covered by white arils (Medeiros et al., 2016).

History

The contrasting colors of guaraná's partially dehisced fruit resemble eyeballs, which gave rise to a legend by the Sateré Maué tribe in Brazil. The myth states that a malevolent god lured a male child into the forest and killed them out of jealousy. When the people in the village found the child, a benevolent god then gifted the Sateré Maué guaraná by planting the child's left eye in the village which birth the first (Atroch et al., 2012). The seeds were traditionally toasted and ground into powder. The resulting powder was then dissolved into water alone or in combination with other herbs. Guaraná was first reported in 1669 by Bettendorf, a high-ranking Jesuit of the Company of Jesus, in Maranhao, and noted that the plant was used extensively by Sateré Maué people. In 1900s, naturalist observed the same thing, and proposed that the Sateré Maué people arrived around the Maué and Andiras River 2000 years ago, and the domestication of guaraná plant likely started after their arrival. Another theory by Ducke stated that guaraná cultivation originated on the upper Rio Negro and upper Orinoco and was brought into the region where the Sateré Maué lived (Atroch et al., 2012; Smith & Atroch, 2010).

Cultivation practices

Guaraná is grown on both small and large farms throughout Brazil (mostly in Amazonia), either as a monocrop or alongside with hedgerows. Guaraná is usually harvested by hand in the dry season when the entire fruit bunch is ripe where it is either snipped off with scissors, small pruning shears or broken off manually. If the infructescence doesn’t uniformly ripen, then they are picked individually. The guarana ́ fruits are then placed in a basket and carried back to be processed and roasted. Before roasting the seeds, the red fruits are skinned by hand, left to soak in water, or simply stored for several days until the skin softens. Currently, Brazil is the largest and only producer of guaraná in the world with 15,356 hectares of land planted with guaraná, producing 2698 metric tons of dry seeds and a productivity of 229 kg/ha. The cash value of domestic production is over 13 billion in 2006. With the domestic demand and international demand increasing, more land in Brazil has been cleared for the cultivation of guaraná (Atroch et al., 2012).

Human experiences and nutritional value

The Sateré Maué people had a wide use of the guaraná plant. They normally would crush the guaraná seed and use it as a beverage and an herb to treat diarrhea, arthritis, and deal with fatigue and hunger (Atroch et al., 2012). Currently, guaraná soda is very popular in Brazil, equally popular as Coca Cola in Brazil, and it is made from powder made from guaraná seeds. Guaraná seeds are the most consumed part of the plant due to its high tannin and caffeine content, four times as much as coffee beans. And it is often ground up into power and made into a beverage (Smith & Atroch, 2010). Modern uses for guaraná are currently being researched but there are some promissory notes on the pharmacological applications of the seed extract in increasing cognitive performance, fatigue-relief from chemotherapy, antioxidant activity, chemopreventive on carcinogenesis, and many others (Hamerski et al., 2013; Marques et al., 2019).

References

Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. (2012). Sapindaceae. In Oliveira SM, Flora of the Guianas, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. p. 196.
Atroch, A. L., Filho, F. J. do N., Ângelo, P. C. da S., Vieira de Freitas, D., de Sousa, N. R., ilela de Resende, M. D., & Clement, C. R. (2012). Chapter 17: Domestication and Breeding of the guaraná’ Tree. In Domestication and Breeding: Amazonian Species (pp. 333–360). Vicosa (Brazil) Univ. Federal de Vicosa. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303023020_Domestication_and_breeding_of_the_guaraná_tree
Beck, H. T. (1990). A Survey of the Useful Species of Paullinia L. (Sapindaceae). Advances in Economic Botany, 8, 17.
Brandt, W., Gürke, M. (Max), Köhler, F. E. (Franz E., Pabst, G. (Gustav), Schellenberg, G. (Gustav), & Vogtherr, M. (1883). Köhler’s Medizinal-Pflanzen in naturgetreuen Abbildungen mit kurz erläuterndem Texte: Atlas zur Pharmacopoea germanica, austriaca, belgica, danica, helvetica, hungarica, rossica, suecica, Neerlandica, British pharmacopoeia, zum Codex medicamentarius, sowie zur Pharmacopoeia of the United States of America / herausgegeben von G. Pabst. Gera-Untermhaus : Fr. Eugen Köhler, [1883-1914]. https://archive.org/details/mobot31753002839105/page/n497/mode/2up
Brazilian Amazon Consortium for Genomic Research (REALGENE), Ângelo, P. C. S., Nunes-Silva, C. G., Brígido, M. M., Azevedo, J. S. N., Assunção, E. N., Sousa, A. R. B., Patrício, F. J. B., Rego, M. M., Peixoto, J. C. C., Oliveira, W. P., Freitas, D. V., Almeida, E. R. P., Viana, A. M. H. A., Souza, A. F. P. N., Andrade, E. V., Acosta, P. O. A., Batista, J. S., Walter, M. E. M. T., … Astolfi-Filho, S. (2008). Guaraná (Paullinia cupana var. sorbilis), an anciently consumed stimulant from the Amazon rain forest: The seeded-fruit transcriptome. Plant Cell Reports, 27(1), 117–124. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00299-007-0456-y
Chery, J. G., Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Rothfels, C. J., & Specht, C. D. (2019). Phylogeny of Paullinia L. (Paullinieae: Sapindaceae), a diverse genus of lianas with dynamic fruit evolution. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, 140, 106577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106577
guaraná_(Paullinia_cupana)_fruits_(29055398276).jpg (3648×4504). (n.d.). Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/guaraná%C3%A1_%28Paullinia_cupana%29_fruits_%2829055398276%29.jpg
Huang, R., O’Donnell, A. J., Barboline, J. J., & Barkman, T. J. (2016). Convergent evolution of caffeine in plants by co-option of exapted ancestral enzymes. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(38), 10613–10618. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1602575113
Jud, N. A., Allen, S. E., Nelson, C. W., Bastos, C. L., & Chery, J. G. (2021). Climbing since the early Miocene: The fossil record of Paullinieae (Sapindaceae). PLOS ONE, 16(4), e0248369. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0248369
Krug, C., Garcia, M. V. B., & Gomes, F. B. (2015). A scientific note on new insights in the pollination of guaraná (Paullinia cupana var. Sorbilis). Apidologie, 46(2), 164–166. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-014-0304-3
Lleras, E. (n.d.). Species of Paullinia with economic potential. In Neglected Crops: 1492 from a Different Perspective. Retrieved May 9, 2022, from https://hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/1492/Paullinia.html
Maristela, M., Ariane, M. K., Ana, C. S. dos S., Ormezinda, C. C. F., & Vildes, M. S. (2014). Evaluation of ochratoxin A and fungi in powdered guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth), a caffeine rich product from Amazon forest. African Journal of Microbiology Research, 8(6), 545–550. https://doi.org/10.5897/AJMR2013.6579
Marques, L. L. M., Ferreira, E. D. F., Paula, M. N. de, Klein, T., & Mello, J. C. P. de. (2019). Paullinia cupana: A multipurpose plant – a review. Revista Brasileira de Farmacognosia, 29(1), 77–110. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bjp.2018.08.007
Medeiros, H., Forzza, R. C., & Acevedo-Rodríguez, P. (2016). Wild Relatives of guaraná ( Paullinia cupana , Sapindaceae) in Southwestern Brazilian Amazon. Systematic Botany, 41(1), 202–228. https://doi.org/10.1600/036364416X690606
Medina, M. C., Sousa-Baena, M. S., Prado, E., Acevedo-Rodríguez, P., Dias, P., & Demarco, D. (2021). Laticifers in Sapindaceae: Structure, Evolution and Phylogenetic Importance. Frontiers in Plant Science, 11, 612985. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2020.612985
Natural And Organic Energy Shot—Organic Energy Shots | SuddenRush guaraná. (n.d.). SuddenRush guaraná USA. Retrieved May 10, 2022, from https://suddenrushGuaraná.com/pages/our-mission
Prance, G. T., & Nesbitt, M. (Eds.). (2005). The cultural history of plants. Routledge.
Smith, N., & Atroch, A. L. (2010). Guaraná’s Journey from Regional Tonic to Aphrodisiac and Global Energy Drink. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 7(3), 279–282. https://doi.org/10.1093/ecam/nem162

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
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6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
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8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Catherine Nordstrom & Ismael Rodriguez #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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