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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man

Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya

Nomenclatural History
Annonaceae cherimola Miller or otherwise known by the common names of chirimoya, cherimola, or cherimoya.The common name of cherimoya originated from the Quechua word chirimuya which means “cold seeds”. This is because the tree itself only grows at high altitudes with colder temperatures and the seeds will only germinate in those conditions (Morton 1987). However, the creamy texture of the flesh and aroma also give it its secondary common name of the “custard apple”.

Other names used for cherimoya in different countries:
In Venezuela, it is called chirimorrinon
In Brazil, graveola, graviola, or grabiola
In Mexico, pox or poox; in Belize, tukib
In El Salvador it is sometimes known as anona poshte; and elsewhere merely as anona, or anona blanca.
In France, it is anone; in Haiti, cachiman la Chine
Indian names in Guatemala include pac, pap, tsummy and tzumux

Evolutionary History
One of the earliest evolutionary branches in the angiosperm phylogenetic tree is the magnoliid clade. According to APG IV, the Magnoliids clade consists of about 10,000 species, 18 families, and four orders. The orders are Magnoliales, Canellales, Laurales, and Piperales. Magnoliales order is a taxonomic group of woody or herbaceous flowering plants which consists of about 3,000 species, 154 genera, and six families. The families in the order are Annonaceae, Myristicaceae, Magnoliaceae, Degeneriaceae, Eupomatiaceae, and Himantandraceae. Annona cherimola is a part of the larger Annonaceae family, which contains about 130 genera and 2400 species as well as being one of the oldest families among the flowering plants with an ancestry of roughly 95 million years. Among the genus Annona, which diverged 25 million years ago, there are around 175 species. Some common species under this genus include soursop, sugar apple, and atemoya which is a hybrid cross between cherimoya and sugar apple. Molecular data suggests that the A. cherimoya and the A. squamosa (sugar apple) are the closest relatives amongst the fruiting species (Rare Fruit Club, 2021).
Cherimoya genetic diversity is highest, in the countries of its origin, Peru and Ecuador. Whereas, in Spain and Madeira it has less genetic diversity which can be due to genetic bottlenecks effect from limited introduction. Cherimoya fruits’ genetic diversity is also high in california which is possibly due to the expansion of cherimoya cultivation in this region (Zonneveld et al. 2012).

Ecology and Life History
The cherimoya tree is a subtropical or mild-temperate tree that is sensitive to climate. It requires long days and is typically grown in high elevations between 4,000 and 8,000 ft where the temperature ranges from 62.° and 77°F (Morton, 1987). Any temperatures lower than 26°F can severely kill or injure the mature tree. It also prefers drier and non-windy climates for proper pollination. The seeds, if properly stored, are viable for several years. To properly plant, soak in water for 1 to 4 days and discard those that float. Plant directly in the soil and will germinate in 3 to 5 weeks (Morton, 1987). Once the plants are 3 to 4 inches high they are transplanted to nursery pots and within a year to two they bud and are grafted, growing up to 3 to 4ft (Morton, 1987). To properly grow the tree, it is recommended to interplant with maize or potatoes to provide some organic material to the soil it grows in. The tree goes dormant during the winter for around 4 months and once the dormancy period is over, leafbuds begin to appear and yield fruits around 3.5 to 5 years old. Production ramps up during the 5th to 10th year where there is an expected yield of 25 fruits per tree. The ideal time to pick the fruits is when its full grown but firm as ripening is best off the tree. There should be a slight yellow-greenish hint on the skin. In Bolivia, they shake the fruit to listen to the sounds of loose seeds to judge if its ready to be picked. Once picked, the fruit should be stored at room temperature and will soften and be ready to eat in 3 to 4 days. The cherimoya tree also doesn’t rely on any pollinators that are known and heavily require wind or hand pollination to successfully reproduce. The only hypothesized pollinator for the cherimoya is a small beetle native to the region that are able to spread the pollen from the fleshy part of the female flower and male flowers, whereas bees are too large to get too both.

Vegetative Morphology
The tree mostly remains green and functional through different seasons, it is a relatively fast-growing tree with low-branched and spreading tree. However , the roots are slow growing and weak when the tree is young. It develpoved a taproot system initially, which them become fibrous roots that will stay shallow unless deep watered. This plant is often grafted or budded onto seedling rootstock.They have a grey trunk with relatively smooth bark. The height can range from 16 to 30 ft tall. The mature branches are woody and sappy. The leaves are leathery and are approximately 2 to 9.8 inches long and 1.2 to 3.9 inches wide. The leaves are briefly deciduous to semi-deciduous. They have an elliptic shape, and they are more rounded near the leaf stalk with more pointed ends. The leaves are single and they alternate. They usually have a darker green color and they are slightly hairy on the upper surface and slightly furry on the underside (Cautín and Agustí 2005).

Reproductive Morphology
The flowers are pale green and they are about 1.2 inches long. They are dichogamous and borne in either solitary or groups of 2-3 on short stalks. The flowers themselves have three oblong petals that have a slightly pink and white interior and have a green or brown exterior. They are fragrant and have a strong fruity odor.While the plant is hermaphroditic which means they have both male and female reproductive organs they have a mechanism that avoids self-pollination. The mechanism that prevents cherimoya from self pollination happens because of the dichogamous characteristic of this plant which means that the flowers have the stamen and pistil mature at different stages (Richardson and Anderson 1996).

The first reproductive stage of cherimoya is the female stage. The flower’s sticky stigmas can receive pollen only from another flower and receptivity reduces in arid mountain air. The weather condition and temperature can affect the female flower’s receptivity period, for example humidity can increase it. The second stage, male stage, happens one to three days after the female stage. At this stage petal separates all the way and anther produces pollen so pollinators distribute it far and wide to other flowers or gets distributed through air. The cherimoya’s natural pollinator is a tiny beetle. These natural pollinators do not live in California therefore one of the major problems for cherimoya pollination is inadequate natural pollination. One solution to this is the Hand-pollination which is more common when growing fruits (Schroeder 1943).

The fruit is edible and the appearance is conical, almost heart-shaped. The interesting skin of the fruit is formed from the fusion of the carpels which results in the bumpy texture. They are usually 4 to 8 inches long and 4 inches in width. They weigh around 18 ounces. The fruit can be easily broken or cut open. The inside is white, juicy and creamy with a pleasing aroma. The black bean-like seeds are approximately ½ to ¾ in length and scattered throughout the flesh once opened(Cautín and Agustí 2005).

Historical Accounts
There is a historical account that the seeds of the cherimoya were sent by P. Bernabe Cobo from Guatemala in 1629 and thirteen years after the cherimoya fruits and trees were found in markets and cultivation in Lima. Cobo described the fruits as “[…] white fleshed and very smooth, with a sweet and sour taste […] the best and cheapest of all the fruit of the Indies […]” (Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino, n.d). Cobo also sent the seeds to Mexico in 1629, where, now, it thrives in the higher elevations. In 1757, it was introduced to Spain as a dooryard tree but in the 1940s, the cherimoya tree became a staple and replacement for the orange trees that were wiped out due a disease. Today, Spain is one of the biggest producers of cherimoya. In 1871, the seeds from Mexico were brought over to California and planted. 9,000 trees were plants in 1936 but were killed off by too cold of a climate in 1937 and only small orchards remain. California remains the only state in the United States that can successfully cultivate cherimoya and bear fruits (Morton, 1987).
The cherimoya has been used and seen in ceramic art from the Inca during the Late Horizon period around 1493. This archaeological find of the ceramic vessel is on display in the Chimu-Inca style collections of the Musee de l'Homme in Paris that was donated by M. Lencoyne in 1887. The Incan people historically used cherimoya as a dessert and the sweet custardy flesh was a delicacy to many and Chileans consider the cherimoya to be their “national fruit” (National Research Council, 1989).
When Mark Twain visited Kau and Waiohinu in 1866, he visited the sugar plantations and saw a multitude of fruits available. He tried the cherimoya and called the fruit the most delicious fruit known to man and the pride of the islands. Ever since then, interest in the fruit has drastically increased and has been exported to countries around the world to try.

Domestication History
It has been thought that this tree has origin in the highlands of Ecuador & Peru but with recent molecular data, there may be suggestion that there is a meso-American origin. However, now it is grown in subtropical countries with Spain being its largest producer (Morton, 1987). It is also thought to have spread to Chile and Brazil in ancient times as it is currently naturalized in those countries highlands.
It is thought that because the wild and domesticated versions of cherimoya tree are found all over Peru, the domestication history starts in Peru. Both the wild and domesticated cherimoyas have variations in the fruit size and character of the skin (Popenoe 1914). However, unlike guanabana, the other common fruit similar to the cherimoya, there is no archaeological evidence of the cherimoya in Peru, so it is hard to pinpoint exactly where and when domestication of this tree took place ( 2014). There is only speculation that it was domesticated in ancient Peru during the Moche era because of literature and pottery but beyond that there is not much evidence. It is easy to commonly mistake the Cherimoya seeds with the guanabana seeds in archaeology as they’re both black and round. It is known that previously, the cherimoya was unable to be consumed outside of its origin of domestication or cultivation so South America or Spain because it was easily bruised and a soft fruit. However, after new selection aiming to fix those issues, we have a new fruit that is able to be transported longer distances and remove those limitations (National Research Council, 1989).
Because the conditions to grow the cherimoya tree are so specific and the tree itself is very sensitive to its environment, commercial harvesting is proving to be a difficult task. It is only able to be grown on a commercial scale in specific areas of the world, namely Spain and California (National Research Council, 1989). California’s environmental conditions are just right for the cherimoya tree but as discussed in the life history of the tree, the challenge doesn’t lie just in the growing. In order for successful fruit bearing, the farmer must heavily tend to the tree with labor intensive processes of pruning and hand pollination. Therefore, more research and selection needs to be done to successfully harvest the fruit on a larger commercial scale. This is why the fruit itself is quite expensive in non-native areas.

Cultivation Practices
The fruits are very sensitive to climate. If exposed to cold weather before fully mature then they may ripen incorrectly. If they’re exposed to heavy rains or excessive sun then the fruit may crack open. If the humidity is too high, then they have short storage lives (National Research Committee on Technology Innovation, 1989). It is typically grown in Spain, Guatemala, Bolivia, Peru, and other subtropical regions.
To ensure reliable results of bearing fruit, trees are normally grafted or budded on seedling rootstock and done in the spring before the leaves drop (Robert, 2014). The trees themselves prefer higher elevations to 5000 feet but can bear fruits at lower elevations as low as 800 feet (Love, 2012). Pollination is one of the most difficult tasks in cultivating a cherimoya tree. Since the flowers prevent self-pollination with the dichogamous flowering nature and the configuration of the petals, natural pollination is not reliable or conducive. Therefore, hand-pollination is essential in ensuring everything gets pollinated. The pollen would be collected in the evening, stored in a cool, dry place and then reapplied to the mature stigmas in the morning (Robert, 2014).

Nutritional Value and Part of the Plant Consumed
The fruit of the tree or the cherimoya is the part that is consumed. The enticing quality of the fruit is its custardy, creamy texture of the flesh, that give it the title of the custard apple (Arakelyan, 2021).The aromatic flavor is said to be a mix of banana, papaya, and pineapple. It is common to eat the ripe fruit straight out of the tree, cut open, and scooped with a spoon. It also has high nutritional value of around 1.5g of fiber, 21.7g of Calcium, 30.2 mg of Phosphorus, 0.117mg of Thiamine, 0.112g of Riboflavin, and 16.8mg of Ascorbic Acid (Morton, 1987).The cherimoya has micronutrients such as Magnesium, Calcium, and Phosphorus that are in two to four-fold higher in value than other common fruits such as apples. Cherimoya also serves as a great source of Ascorbic Acid (Gentile, 2021).Ascorbic Acid or otherwise known as Vitamin C is a nutrient your body uses to form blood vessels or collagen in bones. It is an essential vitamin to the body’s healing process. Other vitamins such as B6, B2, B1 are all essential in maintaining a healthy immune system and keeping the nervous system functioning. Copper, Potassium, and Magnesium are important minerals help to form blood vessels or are minerals used in upkeeping the body cells.

Health benefits and risks
The seeds should not be eaten since they can contain harmful side effects. The crushed seeds have been used as insecticide. There are also accounts of blindness resulting from the juice of the crushed seeds coming in contact with the eyes. This may be due to the chemical alkaloids found in the seeds such as reticuline, anonaine, lanuginosine, and liriodenine. Human ingestion of the seed can also cause intense photophobia, dilated pupils, vomiting, nausea, dryness in the mouth, flatulence, and other symptoms resembling the effects of a prescription medicine Atropine, used to treat the symptoms of low heart rate or as an antidote for overdose of mushroom poisoning (Morton, 1987). In Mexican culture, the seeds are sometimes pulverized, mixed with grease, and applied on skin for parasitic skin disorders or lice. The skin of the fruit is also used to make a decoction for relieving pneumonia (Morton, 1987). The fruit itself is being studied as possibilities to remedy and offset medical conditions. Cherimoya is high in antioxidants which combat the oxidative stress on the body, lowering risks of cancer and heart disease. Cherimoya’s carotenoid antioxidants such as lutein may also boost eye health as lutein is the main antioxidant in the eyes that is essential in maintaining healthy eyes (Arakelyan 2021).. Also, since cherimoya has high macronutrient content of Potassium and Magnesium, consumption may prevent high blood pressure as those nutrients promote dilation of blood vessels to decrease blood pressure.
Studies suggest Annona cherimoya has anti-cancer properties and the consumption of the fruit can lower blood sugar and cholesterol levels. There has been research done on the leaves of the cherimoya that can show cytotoxicity against microbial species and cell lines of breast, colon, and liver cancer cells. The Annoncaeous acetogenins found in the cherimoya seeds can have a potency of 10,000 times stronger than Adriamycin, a chemotherapeutic drug (Haykal, 2019).
There have also been slight connections with the phytochemicals found in the seed of the cherimoya and the linkage to the West Indian parkinsonian syndrome. This is because the alkaloid extracted from the seed is shown to be neurotoxic to the neurons that release dopamine and that can potentially cause dysfunction and degeneration of those neurons. This effect is then potentially linked to an increased probability of developing West Indian Parkinson disease (Haykal, 2019).

References:
Anon. (n.d). "Cherimoya, Chirimoya, Annona cherimola." The Rare Fruit Club WA, www.rarefruitclub.org.au/Cherimoya.htm
Anon. (n.d). “Flora of the West Indies / Department of Botany, National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution.” Retrieved June 2, 2022 (https://naturalhistory2.si.edu/botany/WestIndies/).
Annonaceae | Description, Genera, & Species | Britannica. (n.d.). Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://www.britannica.com/plant/Annonaceae
Arakelyan, Hayk & Hayk, S. (2021). Custard Apple(Cherimoya) and Health.
Bonavia, Duccio, et al. (2004). “Archaeological Evidence of Cherimoya (Annona Cherimolia Mill.) and Guanabana (Annona Muricata L.) In Ancient Peru”. Economic Botany. 58(4) pp 5-9=522.
Cautín, R., and M. Agustí. (2005). “Phenological Growth Stages of the Cherimoya Tree (Annona Cherimola Mill.).” Scientia Horticulturae 105(4):491–97. doi: 10.1016/j.scienta.2005.01.035.
Gentile, C., Mannino, G., Palazzolo, E., Gianguzzi, G., Perrone, A., Serio, G., & Farina, V. (2020). Pomological, Sensorial, Nutritional and Nutraceutical Profile of Seven Cultivars of Cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill). Foods (Basel, Switzerland), 10(1), 35. https://doi.org/10.3390/foods10010035
Love, Ken, et al. (2007). "Twelve Fruits With Potential Value-Added and Culinary Uses." HawaiiFruit.net, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. www.hawaiifruit.net/12trees.html.
Morton, J. (1987). Cherimoya. p. 65–69. In: Fruits of warm climates. Julia F. Morton, Miami, FL.
.Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino. (n.d.). Cherimoya Retrieved June 3, 2022, from http://precolombino.cl/en/recursos-educativos/aportes-de-america-a-la-alimentacion/frutas/chirimoya-o-guanabana/
National Research Council (U.S.). (1989). "Cherimoya." Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation, Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Internet Archive, Public Domain, archive.org/.
PubMed. (n.d.). Mapping genetic diversity of cherimoya (Annona cherimola Mill.): Application of spatial analysis for conservation and use of plant genetic resources— Retrieved June 2, 2022, from https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22253801/
Richardson, A. C., and P. A. Anderson. (1996). “Hand Pollination Effects on the Set and Development of Cherimoya (Annona Cherimola) Fruit in a Humid Climate.” Scientia Horticulturae (Netherlands).
Schroeder, C. A. (1943). “Hand Pollination Studies on the Cherimoya.” Proceedings. American Society for Horticultural Science, 1943 43:39–41.
Vieth, Robert. (2014). "Cherimoya." University of California Cooperative Extension, Agriculture and Natural Resources, Ventura County, ucanr.edu .
Zonneveld, Maarten van, Xavier Scheldeman, Pilar Escribano, María A. Viruel, Patrick Van Damme, Willman Garcia, César Tapia, José Romero, Manuel Sigueñas, and José I. Hormaza. (2012). “Mapping Genetic Diversity of Cherimoya (Annona Cherimola Mill.): Application of Spatial Analysis for Conservation and Use of Plant Genetic Resources.” PloS One 7(1):e29845. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0029845.

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8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Catherine Nordstrom & Ismael Rodriguez #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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