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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships

Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez

Introduction and Nomenclature

The scientific name of the tiger nut is Cyperus esculentus. Its species name, esculentus, means "good to eat," (WordSense Dictionary n.d.) reflecting the plant's use as edible food. It is known as chufa by the Spanish, atadwe by West Africans, and yellow nutsedge when it is viewed as a pest species. It has tough, fibrous foliage and produces yellow flower heads where thousands of seeds can be found. Because of these features, they are often mistaken for grass. However, C. esculentus is a sedge that is identifiable by its triangular and waxy stems. Still, sedges are viewed as "grass-like weeds". While C. esculentus does produce small and plentiful fruits, they are not usually consumed. Instead, the most commonly consumed part of the plant is its tubers or the tiger nut (Wikimedia Foundation 2022). The tiger nut is commonly cultivated in North Africa, the Middle East, and Spain, where it is used as a food crop as well as feed for livestock. While these regions continue to regard the crop as beneficial, other places such as North America, Oceania, and Japan have opposing opinions on the invasive species (CAB International n.d.).

Morphology and Reproduction

C.esculentus is a perennial sedge found in tropical and subtropical regions. C. esculentus reproduces mainly through tuber formation, which produces exact clones of the parent plant (Schonbeck 2020). The plants also sexually reproduce through wind pollination. The small yellow flowers can cross pollinate and self pollinate, and can form seeds, though the seeds are not consumed (Wikimedia Foundation 2022). The oily tubers support the formation of shoots from the bulbs associated with the tuber, which develops into the leaves and flowers of the plant as it matures. Seedlings are visually similar to mature plants, with more tender leaves and lighter coloration (Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California n.d.). The clonal nature of reproduction through tuber proliferation allows C. esculentus to establish rapidly. The plant prefers wet, warm environments, such as bogs and marshes (Vreš and Šilc 2021). C. esculentus have potential origins in multiple regions around the world, but the cultivated tiger nut most likely originated in the Mediterranean and Northern Africa. The plant belongs to the family Cyperaceae, which includes important crops such as water chestnuts and papyrus reeds. This family is part of order Poales, which includes widely cultivated crops such as rice and sorghum, as well as other common plants such as grasses (De Castro et. al 2015).

History as a Cultivar

Before they were seen as invasive weeds, the tiger nut was a highly valued crop. The tubers, when consumed, contain a variety of macronutrients and oil, due to their natural role in supporting new shoots of tiger nuts (Ogletree 2021). These nutrients include protein, carbohydrates, and microbiome promoting starches, as well as fibers to aid gut health. The earliest records of the tiger nut come from ancient Egypt where they were entombed with high-ranking Egyptian officials. The tuber could be used to make oil that was perfect for perfume and medicine, the leaves were useful to feed livestock, and they were even a great source of food (Chen 2016). The tiger nut could be eaten raw, ground-up as flour, or roasted. One of the more common ways of processing the tiger nut was to make them into tiger nut cakes. A tomb-painting dated from the 15th century BCE illustrates the process of preparing tiger nut cakes from raw tiger nut (Chen 2016). In this process, the large piles of tiger nuts are ground up into coarse flour which is then mixed with honey or oil. The mixture is then formed into long cones. These cakes were brought as sacrifices to the gods on an official’s behalf.

The use of the tiger nut spread to other parts of the world after the North African Moors invaded Spain in 711. With them, they brought the practice of drinking tiger nut milk. From this time, the Spanish began making horchata de chufa, chufa being the Spanish name for tiger nut. This transfer of goods only furthered after Spain colonized parts of Mexico. The Spanish conquistadors brought with them many of the components necessary to make horchata de chufa but forgot the main ingredient: tiger nut. So the earliest settlers used rice to make the horchata instead (Ragone 2020). To this day these popular drinks are still consumed as they were originally made today. The beverage, although varied by region, originated from the use of the tiger nut. The tiger nut is still cultivated in these regions of the world today, but they have managed to establish throughout the world as an invasive species.

Shift to Invasive Pest

In the 19th century, C. esculentus’ value as a crop species began diminishing. Plantation style agriculture has begun to be widely adopted throughout the world, with crops with the highest yields becoming more favored to support the growing global population. However, tiger nuts do not have a great yield per acre, and so remained a niche product due to perceived inefficiency (Chen 2016).

However, despite its lack of popularity as a cultivar, C. esculentus’ morphological traits and life history, including its ability to reproduce through rhizomes, tubers, and seeds, has made the plant an extremely effective invasive species in many parts of the world (Schonbeck 2020) . When C. esculentus is viewed as a pest species, it is known by another colloquial name: the yellow nutsedge. Yellow nutsedge quickly dominates native plant communities due to how fast they propagate and their wide range of environmental tolerance. They often invade areas near bodies of water but can then propagate outwards to dryer areas (Schonbeck 2020). These wetlands, such as riverbanks and marshes, are extremely threatened biomes and also extremely valuable areas of agricultural development (Vreš and Šilc 2021).

Many of the world’s heavily irrigated crops, such as rice, cotton, and onions, are grown in conditions highly favorable to yellow nutsedge propagation. Yellow nutsedge can easily outcompete these crops, grow quickly, and shade over them. Their rhizomes can penetrate the tubers and tap roots of crops such as potatoes and carrots, potentially destroying these crops (Petrovic 2021). Uncontrolled yellow nutsedge infestations can lead to total loss of certain crops. Most management recommendations for yellow nutsedge involve rotating crops and utilizing competitive, taller crops to exploit the yellow nutsedge’s low shade tolerance. Corn, soybeans, and tomatoes are all possible candidates (Schoneck 2019).

Interestingly, yellow nutsedge has also become a key part of management strategies for another invasive pest species: the carp. Carp has become an especially problematic conservation concern in many waterways around the world, and management agencies have turned to recreational anglers to help with the problem this species poses. The tuber of yellow nutsedge, used as the edible tiger nut, can also be used as bait to attract carp. The tubers are usually boiled and soaked before being used as either scatter bait or hook bait. Yellow nutsedge is attractive to carp but not as attractive to other wildlife in the other area, allowing for targeted removal of carp. In this way, an invasive species could potentially be used to control the numbers of another invasive species (Cutler 2022). C. esculentus' changing relationship with humans, from cultivated crop to invasive to a potential mitigation measure for another species, reflects the way in which cultural context can change the way humans view a plant.

References

Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California. (n.d.). Yellow Nutsedge (cyperus esculentus). Weed Gallery: Yellow nutsedge--UC IPM. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from http://ipm.ucanr.edu/PMG/WEEDS/yellow_nutsedge.html

CAB International. (n.d.). Cyperus esculentus (Yellow Nutsedge). Invasive Species Compendium. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/17496

Chen, A. (2016, April 27). Loathed by farmers, loved by ancients: The strange history of tiger nuts. NPR. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/04/27/472581773/loathed-by-farmers-loved-by-ancients-the-strange-history-of-tiger-nuts#:~:text=Matailong%20Du%2FNPR-,The%20earliest%20records%20of%20tiger%20nuts%20date%20back%20to%20ancient,Nutritionally%2C%20they%20do%20OK.

Coletti, A. (2020, April 23). Tiger nut. Pass The Flamingo: Ancient Food History and Recipes. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://passtheflamingo.com/tag/tiger-nut/

Cutler, N. (2022, April 3). Tiger nuts for carp fishing – the ultimate guide. Improved Carp Angling. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://improvedcarpangling.com/tiger-nuts-for-carp-fishing-the-ultimate-guide/

De Castro, O., Gargiulo, R., Del Guacchio, E., Caputo, P., & De Luca, P. (2015). A molecular survey concerning the origin of Cyperus esculentus (Cyperaceae, Poales): two sides of the same coin (weed vs. crop). Annals of botany, 115(5), 733-745.

Generalissimo, T. (2021, March 1). The hirshon ancient egyptian tiger nut cones. The Food Dictator. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.thefooddictator.com/the-hirshon-ancient-egyptian-tiger-nut-cones/

Ogletree, K. (2021, August 23). Are tiger nuts worth the hype? 5 healthy facts to know about this trending superfood (that's not really a nut). Real Simple. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.realsimple.com/health/nutrition-diet/tiger-nuts

Petrovic, K. (2021, November 11). Field Scouting Guide: Yellow nutsedge. Growing Produce. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.growingproduce.com/crop-protection/field-scouting-guide-yellow-nutsedge/

Ragone, G (2020, September 12). "The Surprising Origin of Horchata." mashed. Retrieved May 27, 2022 from
https://www.mashed.com/246343/the-surprising-origin-of-horchata/

Schonbeck, M. (2019, October 14). Yellow Nutsedge (cyperus esculentus) in greater depth. eOrganic. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://eorganic.org/node/5135#:~:text=Native%20to%20the%20Americas%2C%20yellow,1991%3B%20Webster%2C%202006

Schonbeck, M. (2020, January 1). Weed profile: Yellow Nutsedge (cyperus esculentus) and Purple Nutsedge (C. Rotundus). eOrganic. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://eorganic.org/node/5131

Vreš, B., & Šilc, U. (2021). Invasion, distribution and habitat affiliation of Cyperus esculentus, a new weed in Slovenia. Hacquetia, 20(2), 291-302.

Wikimedia Foundation. (2022, May 24). Cyperus esculentus. Wikipedia. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyperus_esculentus#cite_note-2

WordSense Dictionary. (n.d.). Esculentus‎ (Latin): Meaning, origin, translation. WordSense. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.wordsense.eu/esculentus/

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9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
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15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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