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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Avocado: New World Nutient Pack

The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado

Ahuácatl

The avocado, sometimes referred to as the alligator pear, gets its name from the Aztec, or Nahuatl, word for the fruit, ahuácatl. It is believed that the name comes from the Aztec word for testicle, referring to the shape of the fruit and its association with fertility (Avocado Races and Varieties, n.d.). The name avocado in English comes from the name aguacate in Spanish, originally coined by Spanish Conquistadors in the 16th century. As the fruit was traded around through the Americas and Europe, it acquired several different colloquial names. Its other common name, alligator pear, got its start in the West Indies. This name also describes the appearance of the fruit, but its use was discouraged by horticulturalists as the fruit was commercialized as it is misleading (History: What’s in a name?). The Linnaean binomial name for the avocado is Persea americana Mill. The Genus name Persea refers to a group of about 150 evergreen trees in the Laurel family, Lauraceae. The species name americana refers to the plant’s region of origin in the Americas. The plant was first described and named by Mill sometime before the mid 19th century.

The avocado originated in Mesoamerica, likely getting its start in South-Central Mexico. It belongs to the Persea group of the family Lauraceae, a large pantropical family of trees and shrubs; it may be the best known and most economically important member of the laurel family. Its closest relatives include other laurels like cinnamon, sassafras, the California laurel, and other basal angiosperms. Geographical isolation of the species resulted in the evolution of three separate races, Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana respectively) (Ge, Y. et al. 2019). The ancestors of the avocado evolved alongside the megafauna of the Americas. The fruit of the avocado plant was often eaten whole by massive herbivores like the giant sloth and then the large pit would be spread when the animal was done digesting (Spilde, I. 2020).

Three Main Races

The trees of the avocado plant are tall or spreading. Their branches exhibit alternating leaf placement and the leaves and fruit vary greatly in shape among the many different cultivars. The avocado has three different races from which all of its various cultivars are derived and each race has its own morphological characteristics. The Mexican race, most influential among the cultivars grown commercially in North America, is known for being hardier and able to withstand colder climates. The leaves are the smallest of the three races and have a sharper apex. The fruit typically weighs between 3 and 12 ounces and has very thin, glossy, skin. The flowers of the Mexican varieties tend to appear in winter or early spring and the fruits usually ripen in the summer and fall. Many of the common cultivars of this race have fruits that are obovoid, but they do vary widely. Mexican varieties can often be identified by a strong anise-scent produced by the leaves. The West Indian and Guatemalan races lack this scent in the leaves.

The West Indian Race is often visually similar to the Guatemalan race. The young leaves are often lighter in color and the fruits are produced on shorter stems. The fruits vary extremely in size from 4 ounces to 3 pounds and have a smooth surface with thin and pliable skin ranging in color from yellow-green to maroon. The flowers open between late winter and spring and the fruits mature from summer to fall.

The foliage of the Guatemalan race tends to be deeper in color and the new growth is usually deep bronze-red in color. The fruits are produced on long stems, usually weigh between 12 and 20 ounces, and range in color from light green to dark purple. The skin on the surface of the fruits is not smooth, instead it is often rough and bumpy, increasingly so toward the stem. This skin also tends to be thicker than the other races (Avocado Races and Varieties, n.d.).

The flowers of the avocado tree can be categorized into two reproductive groups. The groups are differentiated by when the female and male flowers open. Cultivars in group A have flowers that first open in the morning as functionally female, and then reopen the afternoon of the next day as functionally male. Those in group B have flowers that open first in the afternoon as functionally female and then open the following morning functionally male (Growing Avocados, n.d.). This staggered opening of the different sexes of the flowers makes Group B trees good pollinators for Group A trees but it does not make Group A trees good pollinators for Group B trees. All the flowers have both male and female parts, including 1 pistol and 6 stamen, but only the female parts or the male parts are ever active at a given time (Reproduction, n.d.).

Domestication

Avocado was domesticated in Mesoamerica, specifically in Coxcatlán, the region of Tehuacán, Puebla State, Mexico (Chen et al., 2009). First evidence of human consumption can be linked to this place, and is dated to be approximately 8000-7000 BC (Chen et al., 2009). The Mokayas were the first Mesoamerican culture to cultivate and domesticate the fruit, and later transmitted the practice to the Mayas and Olmecs.

The wild progenitor of cultivated avocado was a polymorphic tree species with a geographic range that spanned from the eastern and central highlands of Mexico through Guatemala to the Pacific coast of Central America (Chen et al., 2009).

The Neolithic people began domesticating this wild form, and replaced the wild Persea americana ancestors with 3 well-demarcated ecotypes of avocados known as the Guatemalan (Persea americana var. guatemalensis Williams), Mexican (Persea americana var. drymifolia Blake), and West Indian (Persea americana var. americana Mill).

The Guatemalan avocados (P.americana var. guatemalensis Williams) are from southern Mexico/ Guatemala, and are more adapted to medium elevations in the tropics (Maestri, 2020). This cultivar is similar in shape and size to the Mexican variety, but usually has a more ovoid and lighter-colored seed, with a thick, tough skin (Maestri, 2020).

The Mexican avocados (P. americana var. drymifolia), also called the aoacatl in the Aztec Language, originated in central Mexico and are adapted to the tropical highlands (Maestri, 2020). This cultivar has relatively good cold tolerance and is characterized by small fruits with a thin, purple-black skin (Maestri, 2020).

The West Indian avocados (P. americana var. americana Mill) is a misnomer, as this cultivar is not from the West indies, but instead domesticated in the Maya lowlands of central America (Maestri, 2020). This variety is the largest of the three, with a round to pear shape and smooth, easy-to-peel light green skin (Maestri, 2020). Additionally, this cultivar is adapted to lowland humid tropics and can tolerate high levels of salt and chlorosis (Maestri, 2020). Interestingly, ethnobotanical data and genetic marker studies reveal that the 3 cultivars underwent separate domestication histories and were not in contact until the 16th century when European contact began (Chen et al., 2009).

Although the 3 cultivars were not in contact until the 16th century, modern varieties encompass more than 30 main cultivars, which are products of hybridization of the 3 ancient cultivars, as well as crossbreeding between modern varieties to get the desired shape and fruit (Maestri, 2020). Of the modern cultivars, Anaheim and Bacon (derived from Guatemalan avocados), Fuerte (derived from Mexican avocados), and Hass and Zutano (hybrids of Mexican and Guatemalan) are the most common varieties found in supermarkets.

Cultivation

Typically, due to the different abiotic conditions needed for the 3 main cultivars, different varieties of avocados are cultivated under different climatic and soil requirements for proper harvest. The West Indian cultivars prefer continuous hot, humid conditions with a higher summer rainfall, whereas the Mexican cultivars can tolerate temperatures as low as - 4 to -5 °C, with a humidity range of 45 to 60% (National Department of Agriculture, 2000).

The most popular cultivar in South Africa, the Fuerte cultivar, has a wider climatic tolerance than the pure Guatemalan or Mexican varieties because the Fuerte cultivar is a natural hybrid between the Mexican and Guatemalan types (National Department of Agriculture, 2000). In terms of soil, the avocado trees prefer loose soil in which their root systems can penetrate the soil to a depth of 1m (National Department of Agriculture, 2000). Additionally, root rots can often develop among avocado trees in poorly-drained soils, and thus soil percolation is a necessary measurement prior to planting the trees (National Department of Agriculture, 2000). Also, avocados grow best in soils with 20 to 40% of clay, and if the soil’s clay content is below 20%, it is common practice to irrigate the plants more often to avoid temporary droughts (National Department of Agriculture, 2000). If the soil contains high clay content, high rainfall or over-irrigation can lead to over-saturation of the soil, which promotes the aforementioned root rot (National Department of Agriculture, 2000).

Harvesting the fruit is also dependent on the regions, and harvest periods can be dramatically different based on the cultivar. For instance, the Hass variety is usually harvested between June and October in warm regions, or during August to December in cool regions (National Department of Agriculture, 2000). The Fuerte variety, on the other hand, is harvested during March to August in warm regions, and in May to November in cold regions (National Department of Agriculture, 2000).

Moreover, due to the global demand for avocados, many countries are increasing their avocado exports. For instance, Mexico, Chile, Peru, and New Zealand are primary exporters of avocados to China, whose demands for the fruit increased from 32,127 tons in 2017 to 43,859 tons in 2018 (36.5% increase) (Siekman, 2019). Additionally, African countries like Kenya, South Africa, Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zimbabwe are also exporting avocados, and are important suppliers to the European market (Siekman, 2019).

A Fatty Fruit

While the leaves and seeds of the avocado are sometimes used in medicine, it is most common to consume the fruit of the plant. The oil from the fruit can also be used in cooking and as a medicine.(Avocado, n.d.). The fruit from the avocado tree is very dense in nutrients and contains a large amount of healthy fats. They are among the fruits with the most fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce (Superfoods - an Overview of the Avocado, 2017). There are many rumored health benefits from consuming the avocado fruit including healing wounds, easing toothache, helping hair growth, aiding memory, and reducing obesity etc. However, there is a lack of sufficient evidence to support most of these claims. Some evidence has suggested that it may be effective for helping to reduce high cholesterol (Avocado, n.d.).

Avocados are used in many dishes but they are most known for their role in guacamole. Early guacamole was made by the Aztecs out of pure avocado; the modern name of the dish comes from the Nahuatl word āhuacamolli, which translates to “avocado sauce.” The dish provided the Aztecs with vital healthy fats and proteins. Today, guacamole is made with the inclusion of tomato, onion, garlic, cumin, and chilies (Guacamole · Food Origins, n.d.). Avocados are now also often included in dishes like salads, pasta, smoothies, and sandwiches or served on toast or baked into deserts.

Avocado Expansion

Due to avocado’s utility as a superfood and medicine, avocados have become a lucrative export product for many countries that can support the appropriate abiotic conditions for avocado growth. East African and Nigerian avocado farmers are potential suppliers to the growing demand, as previous harvest and collection methods caused major soil degradation and other environmental issues (Wells, 2021). However, unlike large-scale commercial avocado farms in Latin America, East Africa and Nigeria are using a more sustainable farming method by implementing smallholder farmers (Wells, 2021). In these settings, the avocados are often complemented with other crops such as maize and beans, which can help restore some of the soil nutrients that are used by the avocado trees (Wells, 2021). Additionally, because these productions are done on a smaller scale, large quantities of pesticides are not needed as it would in a large-scale, corporate production. In particular, farmers in Kenya are already using the smallholders system, with individual farmers owning roughly 2 hectares of land (Wells, 2021) However, despite the focus on increasing avocado suppliers, the crop itself is not immune to climate change. Currently, the precipitation patterns around the world support high avocado yields in Latin America and Africa, but the increasing global temperatures and fluctuation in rain patterns can lead to significantly smaller yields, which can cause the price of avocados to increase dramatically (Wells, 2021). This would not only disrupt the livelihoods of farmers who harvest the crop, but also the consumers who would forgo buying the fruit due to the increased price and lower accessibility.

References

Avocado: Overview, uses, side effects, precautions, interactions, dosing and reviews. (n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://www.webmd.com/vitamins/ai/ingredientmono-890/avocado

Avocado races and varieties. (n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://www.growables.org/information/TropicalFruit/AvocadoRaces.htm

Chen, H., Morrell, P. L., Ashworth, V. E. T. M., de la Cruz, M., & Clegg, M. T. (2009). Tracing the Geographic Origins of Major Avocado Cultivars. Journal of Heredity, 100(1), 56–65. https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esn068

Ge, Y., Dong, X., Wu, B., Wang, N., Chen, D., Chen, H., Zou, M., Xu, Z., Tan, L., & Zhan, R. (2019). Evolutionary analysis of six chloroplast genomes from three Persea americana ecological races: Insights into sequence divergences and phylogenetic relationships. PLOS ONE, 14(9), e0221827. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0221827

Growing avocados: Flowering, pollination and fruit set. (n.d.). [Text]. Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/spring/growing-avocados-flowering-pollination-and-fruit-set

Guacamole · Food origins. (n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2022, from https://tenochtitlan.omeka.net/exhibits/show/guacamole

Maestri, Nicoletta. (2020, August 25). Avocado History - Domestication and Spread of Avocado Fruit. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/domestication-and-spread-of-avocado-fruit-169911

National Department of Agriculture. (2020). Cultivation of Avocados. Retrieved from http://www.avocadosource.com/international/south_africa_papers/cultivation_of_avocados.pdf

Reproduction. (n.d.). Retrieved May 30, 2022, from http://bioweb.uwlax.edu/bio203/s2012/lindert_ava/reproduction.htm

Siekman, D. (2019, March 28). What Scientists Have Learned about the History of the Avocado. ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/domestication-and-spread-of-avocado-fruit-169911

Spilde, I. (2020, November 20). Why does the avocado have such huge seeds?Meet the plants that have lost their enormous partners. https://sciencenorway.no/botany-evolution-plants/why-does-the-avocado-have-such-huge-seedsmeet-the-plants-that-have-lost-their-enormous-partners/1772701

Superfoods—An overview of the avocado. (2017, March 29). Crispers Restaurant. https://www.crispers.com/blog/superfoods-an-overview-of-the-avocado/

Welle, D. (2021, January 5). Green gold: Avocado farming on the rise in Africa | DW | 01.05.2021. DW.COM. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.dw.com/en/green-gold-avocado-farming-on-the-rise-in-africa/a-57390367

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
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5. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction internationally. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacón cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as it is believed to have originated before Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events; today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other parts of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
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9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
11. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols Aronia melanocarpa, also known as Aronia Berries or Black Chokeberries, recently garnered attention for its potential as a “superfood” that combats a variety of diseases. Its scientific name refers to its dark pome fruit, while its common name is a reference to its tart and astringent flavor. Originally native to woodlands and bogs in North America, this shrub has historically been used as medicines and food by the Potawatomi and Abnaki people. It was first described as “Mespilus arbutifolia var. Melanocarpa” in 1803, by the French botanist André Michaux. It was then recategorized as “Aronia melanocarpa”, by American botanist Stephen Elliot in 1821 .Now, it is enjoyed throughout Eastern Europe in jams and wines after its introduction post World War II. Beyond commercial production, this plant can be found planted in rows in people’s gardens. These plants are deciduous, with green, gold leaves that change color to a burgundy red in the fall. They produce inflorescences of small white flowers that ripen into the berries that provide many health benefits. Recent research into the uses of bioactive compounds such as antioxidants, anthocyanins, proanthocyanidins, flavonols, and phenolic acids suggests that extracts from the plant could be useful for anti-inflammatory purposes or treatments for diseases ranging from diabetes to cancers. As a result, the industries for Aronia berries have been on the rise and these berries have been introduced into many new recipes for everyday use. By Natalie Keung and Joanne Kwak #chokeberries
12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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