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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits

M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni

Nomenclature

M. citrifolia L. comes from a family called Rubiaceae which consists of shrubs, terrestrial trees, and herbs. In Hawaii, the species is called Noni, whereas in India it is called Indian Mulberry. The name is derived from the two Latin words “morus” and “indicus” which meant mulberry and Indian respectively (Chen, 2012). The L is in reference to Carl Linneaus who first described the species. The type specimen was first founded by Linnaeus and published on May 1, 1753 at the Species Planetarum (Tropicos). Some other common names of the M. citrifolia are cheese fruit (Australia), kura (Fiji), nenu (Cook Islands) and many more (Tropicos).

Evolutionary History

The genus, Morinda, contains about 100 species of small trees and shrubs (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). In the phylogenetic tree, M. citrifolia has botanical varieties such as M. citrifolia var. citrifolia, M. citrifolia var. bracteata, and M. citrifolia var. elliptica. It also has one cultivar called M. citrifolia cultivar Potteri (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). One of its varieties, M. citrifolia var. bracteata, is a small fruit found in Indonesia and Pacific Oceans with prominent bracts that are protruding from the fruit (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). There was a proposal made to conserve the name Morinda citrifolia with a conserved type. People have claimed that there may have been an error in naming the M. citrifolia because Linnaeus’ description of M. citrifolia refers to two illustrations, with one of them belong less well-known, M. coreia, and the more well-known, M. citrifolia (Chen, 2012). M. coreia became a lectotype and fell into the category of M. citrifolia (Chen, 2012). If the proposal was rejected, then there would be confusion with the naming because the old literature would still have the name filed under M. citrifolia, but the newer literature would be filed as M. nodosa for M. coreia (Chen, 2012). Changing the names would cause confusion since the fruit is used for both research and commercial purposes (Chen, 2012). Thus, the name Morinda citrifolia has been conserved.

Ecology/Life History

M. citrifolia is native to Southeast Asia (Indonesia) and Australia and can live in terrestrial areas such as the secondary rainforest, monsoon forest, coastal forest, and shorelines and typically grow in climates that are tropical, subtropical, and monsoonal areas (Nelson, 2003). Their wild ancestors are not completely known, but researchers speculate that they may be found in Micronesia. The species is a very durable plant because they are able to grow and tolerate in a variety of soil conditions and harsh environments such as coral atolls, basaltic lava flows, and in high elevation (Nelson, 2003). Some locations can be disturbed forests, dry to mesic forests, alien grasslands, open areas near the shoreline, fallow areas, and waste places. Currently, the noni is grown in pantropical areas such as Eastern Polynesia (e.g., Hawai’i, Marquesas, Society Islands), Melanesia (Fiji, New Guinea, New Caledonia, etc.), Western Polynesia, and Micronesia (Guam, the Marshall Islands, etc.), Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (Nelson, 2003). In addition, M. citrifolia currently grows on open shores of Central and South America, the West Indies, and the Bahamas (Nelson, 2003). They are able to withstand drought for almost over 6 months; wild noni are able to grow in arid conditions and can potentially spend their entire lives in perpetual drought (Nelson, 2003). If a fire occurs, they are able to regenerate by growing new foliage via roots and stems. They are also able to grow well in either full sun or 0 to 80% shade. Although they are able to grow in windy areas, the overall yield and plant growth would be diminished. M. citrifolia typically grows 0.75 to 1.5 meters per year along with flowering and fruiting also being continuous throughout the year (Nelson, 2003). Their fruits are harvested when they are a white-gray translucent color, or when they turn fully soft and odorous. The species reaches maturity in about 18 months and can yield about 4 to 8 kg of fruit every month throughout the year.

Morphology

→ Vegetative
The species can be grown as small trees or shrubs that are about 3 to 6 m tall (“The Noni - Botany”). However, there is variation within the species in fruit size, leaf morphology, and plant form (Nelson, 2003). The leaves are opposite, pinnately veined and the upper surface often contains domatia. The lower surface of the leaves contain pubescent domatia in axils of midrib and lateral veins (“The Noni - Botany”). The blades of the leaves are elliptic to elliptic-ovate which can be about 20-45 cm long and 7-25 cm wide. The petioles are stout, being 1.5-2 cm long and the plant has distinct stipules that are 1-1.2 cm long (Nelson, 2003). The apex of the leaves are 2-3 lobed (Nelson, 2003).

→ Reproductive
The flowers of the noni are perfect or hermaphroditic, meaning that it has both male and female reproductive organs. The corolla is white colored, 5-lobed, and is obong-deltate (7 mm long). Since there are 5 petals in the flower, there are 5 stamens. The style is approximately 15 mm long (Nelson, 2003). The fruits are fleshy and syncarp with yellow to white colorings (Nelson, 2003). The noni is 5-10 cm long and 3-4 cm in diameter (Nelson, 2003). The seeds of the fruit have a unique air chamber because it can survive after being submerged in water for months (Nelson, 2003). The flowers are pollinated by fruit bats, birds, and bees. If no animals are present, the flowers are able to self-pollinate, leading to them being mostly clones of themselves (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017).

Historical Accounts

The first documented nomenclature of M. citrifolia occurred in Sanskrit that described the species’ medicinal values, which led to being believed that the fruit could have been used by these communities as early as 3500 years ago (Chen, 2012). Captain James Cook, a British explorer, discovered that the natives of the Pacific Islands used Noni for both food and medicinal purposes (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). Although there is no indication of who introduced the noni, someone may have transported the fruit westwards into the Indian Ocean by sea currents, Seychelles, Marquesasm, and Easter Island (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017).

Domestication History

Since the noni is a non-food crop, it is difficult to look back at evidence to where reports of domestication occurred. Despite its most common name of the Tahitian Noni fruit, as well as other suggestions of origination being Southeast Asia and Micronesia, South Asia has a higher probability and has been the most agreed upon center of origin (Anurudh, 2011). The oldest known references of the fruit's immediate ancestors’ occurrence, use, and cultivation appear in Vedic literature, the northwest region of the Indian subcontinent (Anurudh, 2011). In terms of the timeline of domestication rather than origination, there are many assumptions and attitudes as India being the center of origin for the noni. A plant like noni also would have a hard time originating without richness in biodiversity and ingenuity of local peoples, things this region would have in this area. India is rich in floristic diversity for M. citrifolia L. and its immediate ancestors. There are also 4 species found in India with the genus, Morinda: M. angustifolia, M. persicaefolia, M. reticulata, and 2 varieties of M. citrifolia (citrifolia and bracteata). The common thought is that the Indians' culture, religion and trade expanded to Southeast Asia and eventually made its way to Micronesia and Polynesia (Anurudh, 2011). These territories allowed a space for M. citrifolia to thrive even more so due to its tropical environments and small scale agriculture practices and thus was used for over 2000 years by Pasifika peoples (Anurudh, 2011).

Cultivation Practices

Due to the long standing beneficial wellness and lifestyle qualities of the Tahitian noni fruit, M. citrifolia has a long standing history of horticulture throughout Oceania as well as many parts of the Asia continent. Noni is widely grown by Polynesian peoples but as the name indicates, it is most notorious in the islands of Tahiti and Pasifika regions overall. By way of passing knowledge through generations, the cultivation practices have been narrowed to two main ways of raising the plant, with advantages and disadvantages of both methods. One way is the traditional growing of the seed, or seed propagation. This procedure builds a strong and resilient plant, grounded to the Earth and providing for its caretakers. However, the amount of care and time it takes to reach the point where it bears fruit can be seen as an obstacle to some (“The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production”). The other technique is stem cutting, in which the curator divides a branch around 8-16 inches from the area that bears fruit and replants the new stem. This practice creates a routine that allows the plant to root quickly, although the flora is usually more susceptible to disease as well as harmful branching (“The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production”).

Nutritional Value and Part of Plant Consumed

Nearly all parts of the leaves are used in some way including the leaves, flowers, fruits, bark and roots. The most widely used part of the plant, the fruit, is widely known for its medicinal properties. Research has shown that it may lower risk of chronic conditions in humans such as heart disease as well as diabetes due to its richness in antioxidants such as beta-carotene, iridoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and biotin (“Noni Fruit”). Fresh or dried leaves of the noni can be used to make teas or tonics to treat certain illnesses (Timboy, 2022). White nonis are typically mashed and mixed with water and are gargled to soothe sore throats. Today, they are consumed as immune-boosting and anti-aging supplements (“Noni Fruit”). Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian culture would also imply that the taste and smell of the fruit would drive away bad spirits. Traditionally, the noni was known as a famine fruit when there were hardships because it provided nutrition despite the pungent odor (“Noni Fruit”).

Noni and Drosophila sechellia

Female Drosophila sechellia carry a mutation in their gene called Catsup that inhibits egg production (“Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success”, 2014). In addition, female Drosophila sechellia have very low levels of L-DOPA, a precursor of dopamine, which controls fertility. Consuming the noni fruit, which has high levels of L-DOPA, would increase their levels of L-DOPA and successfully produce more eggs (“Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success”, 2014).

Human Experience

Thanks to the revolutionary ways of travel by the Indigenous populations of the Pacific Ocean, M. Citrifolia was carried throughout Oceania and traded between Islands and Pasifika peoples, again much due to the cultural value of medicine and sustenance (“Noni”). The ripe nonis can be mashed and have its seeds removed so that it can be used as a poultice or can be used to treat constipation (Timboy, 2022). The wilted leaves of the noni can be used to treat cysts on the skin, whereas the fruit can be mashed so that it can treat uku, also known as head lice (Timboy, 2022). Apart from the consumption and remedial uses, Pasifika peoples also had lifestyle uses for the Noni fruit. One of the most widely used and innovative ways was using parts of the plants for dyes, whether it be for clothing, blankets or other fabrics and textiles (“Noni”). The roots would be processed and would dye the material a yellowish color, while the bark would yield a more red hue (“Noni”). Unripe fruits could also be used as slingshot ammo as a consequence of the solidity of the fruit in that state (“Noni”). There is also a Tahitian tradition when girls choose their partners by hiding behind a bush and throwing a noni fruit at them by the river (“Noni”). The partner would pick up the noni fruit, and find the girl that threw it at them (“Noni”).
In modern times, Noni is still most widely cultivated in the islands of the Pacific, but with new trade avenues, it is shipped all over the world. The fruit is processed and sold commercially as fermented fruit juice, fresh-squeezed fruit juice, fruit juice concentrates, fruit powders, oil, leaf powders (Nelson, 2003). These products are sold for either internal consumption (health supplements) or cosmetic use (Nelson, 2003). Since nonis have recently become a modern commercial product, it is predicted that the products would be sold worldwide because of its many health benefits.

References

Anurudh, S. (2011, October 12). Revisiting the origin of the domestication of noni (Morinda citrifolia L.). Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilizationte. Research Gate. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231975768_Singh_Anurudh_K_Peter_PI_and_Singh_K_2011_Revisiting_the_origin_of_the_domestication_of_noni_Morinda_citrifolia_L_Plant_Genetic_Resources_Characterization_and_Utilization_2011_94_549-556_DOI101017S147
Chen, J. (2012). Morinda citrifolia - noni. Wiki.nus. Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://wiki.nus.edu.sg/display/TAX/Morinda+citrifolia+-+Noni
Morinda citrifolia L. Tropicos. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.tropicos.org/name/27900127
Nelson, S. C. (2003). Morinda citrifolia L. (noni) - university of hawaiʻi. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/downloads/morinda_species_profile.pdf
Noni. Tahitian Secrets. (n.d.). Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.tahitiansecrets.fr/en/content/17-noni#:~:text=Noni%20is%20a%20scrub%2C%20widespread,is%20considered%20as%20a%20panacea.
Noni Fruit. Specialty Produce. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Noni_Fruit_12269.php
Rojas-Sandoval, J. (2017, August 5). Morinda citrifolia. Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/34854#totaxonomicTree
The Noni - Botany . College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources . (n.d.). Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://www.tahr.hawaii.edu/noni/botany.asp
The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/horticulture_production.asp
Timboy, M. (2022, May 18). La'au Lapa'au: Medicinal plants and their healing properties. Ke Ola Magazine. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://keolamagazine.com/agriculture/medicinal-plants/
Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. (2014, December 9). Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.mpg.de/8796707/fruit-flies-noni-fruit

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12. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and everything else in between Teff is a unique member of the grass (Poaceae) family that is a staple in East Africa and accounts for a large portion of East African diets. Teff, known for being the plant with the smallest seeds, is a labor intensive crop that is necessary in Ethiopian and Eritrean cuisines. This necessity is born from the traditional usage of Teff flour being used in the fermentation and creation of Injera, a sour spongy flatbread. This demand of Injera, and therefore Teff flour, has led to 31% of Ethiopian landmass being used for the cultivation of Teff. The agronomics of Teff are interesting in that Teff can only thrive in climates similar to the East African Highlands and the planting and harvesting of Teff are known to be labor intensive due to its rooting pattern and its small grain size. Teff itself has multiple physiological variations ranging from varying colors for both the seeds and the plant to variations in Amino Acid, Protein, and nutrition profiles. Teff’s stability as a choice crop in East Africa is accredited to its hardiness to survive drought and water logged conditions when rooted in the proper soil conditions, shelf stability, and the straw can be used for livestock forage feed. Teff is thought to originate some time around the 6000 B.C, but cultivated at some point around 2500 B.C as the earliest known record of Teff, is seeds found in bricks of the Dahshur Pyramids, most prominently the Red Pyramid of Sneferu. By Luis Angel Yepez #tef
13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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