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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America

The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí

Identity

The word açaí is the European corruption of the Tupian word ïwasa’i, meaning “fruit that cries or expels water.” (The Tupi-speaking people have inhabited Brazil dating back to the 1500s) (Alzugaray 1988). As for the plant’s Latin binomial, the genus Euterpe may be so named due to the tree’s graceful growth habit. In Greek mythology, Euterpe was the daughter of Mnemosyne and Zeus and one of the muses of music, song, and dance. (Atsma 2008). The species name, oleracea, refers to having the nature of herbs for cookery, i.e., being edible.
The identity of euterpe oleracea mart., popularly known as açaí, is strongly influenced by indiginous cultures based in South America. In an indigenous settlement located in the Vaupes department of Columbia, cubeo is the native language. In cubeo the euterpe oleracea is known as Acai, Asai, Bambil, Cansin, Murrapo, Nãhõemimueñi, and Nãhõemimueñi (Kew Science, 2022). At the border of Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador the spoken language shifts into one of the greater Choco languages Wounaan. The language, unlike cubeo, has a less diverse array of terms for acai, calling it murrapho (Kew Science, 2022). As you near more centralized areas of South America the Spanish language begins to dominate, each country having a different slang for the species. In Colombia acai is known as Naidi, while Ecuador named it palmiche (Cococauca, 2019).

Phylogeny

The Arecaceae family is composed of perennial flowering species normally found in humid climates. The lineage is split into five subspecies Calamoideae, Nypoideae, Coryphoideae, Ceroxyloideae, and Arecaceae (De Santana Lopes et al., 2021). The basal subfamily, Calamoideae, diverged with its scale-bearing fruits and an abundant number of climbing species. The lineage then diverges into the four sister subfamilies where spiny leaved palms are produced in tropical and humid climates such as South America. Euterpe is the only genus that produces the acai fruit with oleracea and precatoria being the main sources (Yamaguchi K K, 2015). The former produces fruit from multiple stems and the latter uses only a single stem.

Ecology

The açaí palm is able to grow the fruit and flowers throughout the whole year, but there are periods of high production. High amounts of berry production usually happen during the dry seasons of the year. The palm is found in the flooded plains of the Amazon and can handle being in poor soil conditions due to the formation of a large root structure. Humans and animals either inadvertently or purposely spread the seeds as they seek the desired taste of its fruit and high energy content. Alternatively, the flooded plains transport seed through the flow of water. As the seed settle the defining factor in its quick growth is the availability of light. Their incapability to grow in the shade forces humans to cut down the canopy as well as competition to allow its quick growth.

Vegetative Morphology

The açaí is a tall palm tree that can reach up to 25m (Masats, 2021) with pinnate compounded leaves called fronds. There is a grouping of branches at the top, and the açaí fruit hangs lower in clusters. The trunk, or stipes, is slender, cylindrical, fibrous, and often light-grey in color. The stems are often clustered in clumps of up to 20. The açaí has epigeal or aerial roots 40-50 cm. above ground and utilizes pneumataphores (sciencedirect.com).

Reproductive Morphology

The açaí has inflorescence-branched flowering that are cream or purple in color. They are also monoecious, which means they have flowers that are staiminate and pistillate, with the female flowers 2-3 times bigger than the male counterpart (nparks.gov.sg). The fruit is a small, round drupe that is black/purple in color at maturity. It is indehiscent, with the exocarp/skin being green and ripening to a dark purple (sciencedirect.com). The fleshy mesocarp is pulpy, and the endocarp is single-seeded and large, making up 60-80% of the fruit (Marcason, 2009). The açaí tree bears fruit year round, but there are usually two large harvests a year.

Historical Accounts

There is a historical legend associated with the açaí. An indigenous tribe of Pará was in a famine and starved, so the chief, Itaki, wanted to save his people and thus ordered that all the newborns be sacrificed - including his own daughter’s child, Iaça. She was heartbroken and walked through the woods, weeping and crying. The next day, Itaki found Iaça under a tree with small black fruits in the leaves. They made a drink from the fruit and solved the hunger problem, and in honor of Iaça, they named the palm tree after her name in reverse: açaí.
Historically, açaí has been in Brazilian diets for centuries, often eaten as a juice or pudding-like pulp. The tribes in the Amazon rainforest region used the açaí to treat ailments as medicine and for health in “strengthening the immune system, fighting off infection, heart health, and even a sexual stimulant” (Colapinto, 2011). Acai is harvested by the ribeirinhos, or river people, and is often seen in every meal. The local people have a saying that “Without acai, I am still hungry”, symbolzing the importance of acai in the region (Colapinto, 2011). In addition to the fruit, acai trees are cultivated for its heart of palm, leaves, and wood.

Domestication History

The açaí has been domesticated for centuries in the northern Brazilian Amazon region as a staple in their diet. The villagers would learn to climb the tree trunk and harvest the fruit starting from a young age - starting around seven or eight years old (nature.org). Açaí exploded in popularity around the world starting in the early 1990s due to Jeremy and Ryan Black, from Southern California, when they began exporting the fruit to the US (nativoacai.com). It has been advertised as a ‘superfood’ and healthy snack alternative, which launched further productivity for the açaí crop.

Cultivation Practices

The açaí berry grows in the tropical setting of the Amazon on trees that reach up to 60 feet tall. Açaí harvesters, commonly referred to as peconheiros, are mainly families living in surrounding areas in Brazil (McCoy). Thousands of families participate in the harvest each year, as it is their sole source of income. Peconheiros use nothing but small serrated knives and burlap bound to their feet to scale these trees. Oftentimes the weight of a grown adult can cause the trees to snap, so children are expected to work to provide.

Nutritional Value and Part of Plant Consumed

The açaí berry has a high fat content and boasts several health benefits including weight loss and detoxification; however, very little research has been done to prove these claims. The part of the plant that is consumed lies within the drupe of the açaí itself. After harvesting, the berries are plucked off the stems and soaked in water, which aids in skin removal. After the outer layer of skin is removed, the yellow pulp is scraped off the fibrous pit and mashed into a thick paste. This paste is eaten in many ways, including as a side dish, a juice, wine, or mixed with tapioca. Its popularization in the United States is thanks to the creation of açaí bowls, which use the açaí mixture as a base and are topped with various other fruits.

Human Experience

The açaí berry harvest is not inherently detrimental to the Amazon. It has been a primary source of income and food for many families living in Brazil for many years. However, the exponential rise in popularity of the açaí in urban communities in the United States has indirectly fed into an unsustainable increase in harvesting and production of açaí trees in the Amazon. This only exacerbates the issue of exploitation of labor for families who depend on the açaí harvest for income. Organizations such as Amazon Conservation attempt to provide relief to these families in the form of safer cultivation measures. Current harvesting trends are unsustainable in the long run; therefore more awareness and action must be taken by consumers to push for safer and more sustainable harvesting of açaí.

References

Acai. (n.d.). NCCIH. Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/acai Acai berry harvesting Archives. (n.d.). Amazon Conservation Association. Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://www.amazonconservation.org/tag/acai-berry-harvesting/

Acai berry harvesting Archives. (n.d.). Amazon Conservation Association. Retrieved May 24, 2022, from https://www.amazonconservation.org/tag/acai-berry-harvesting/

Açaí: The roots of a super fruit. The Nature Conservancy. (2018, November 9). Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.nature.org/en-us/about-us/where-we-work/latin-america/brazil/stories-in-brazil/acai-the-roots-of-a-super-fruit/

Alzugaray D, Alzugaray C. Enciclopédia de Plantas Brasileiras. São Paulo: Ed. Três Ltda; 1988:24.

Atsma AJ. The Theoi Project: Greek Mythology: Euterpe. Auckland, New Zealand. 2008. Available at: www.theoi.com/Ouranios/MousaEuterpe. html. Accessed January 18, 2010.

Colapinto, J. (2011, May 23). Strange fruit. The New Yorker. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2011/05/30/strange-fruit-john-colapinto

McCoy, Terrence. Small children are climbing 60-foot trees to harvest your açaí. (2021, November 28). Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2021/11/28/brazil-acai-child-labor/

de Oliveira, M. do S. P., & Schwartz, G. (2018). Açaí—Euterpe oleracea. In S. Rodrigues, E. de Oliveira Silva, & E. S. de Brito (Eds.), Exotic Fruits (pp. 1–5). Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-803138-4.00002-2

de Santana Lopes, A., Gomes Pacheco, T., Nascimento da Silva, O., do Nascimento Vieira, L., Guerra, M. P., Pacca Luna Mattar, E., de Baura, V. A., Balsanelli, E., Maltempi de Souza, E., de Oliveira Pedrosa, F., & Rogalski, M. (2021). Plastid genome evolution in Amazonian açaí palm (Euterpe oleracea Mart.) and Atlantic forest açaí palm (Euterpe edulis Mart.). Plant Molecular Biology, 105(4), 559–574. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11103-020-01109-5 Euterpe oleracea.

Euterpe Oleracea - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics. (n.d.). Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/euterpe-oleracea

Euterpe oleracea Mart. | Plants of the World Online | Kew Science. (n.d.). Plants of the World Online. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:666941-1

Fruit of Brazil: The Fascinating History of the Acai Berry. Nativo Acai. (n.d.). Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.nativoacai.com/fruit-of-brazil-the-fascinating-history-of-the-acai-berry/

Marcason, W. (2009). What is the acai berry and are there health benefits. Masats, J. (2021, June 30). Acai cultivation. Botanical online. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.botanical-online.com/en/cultivation/acai-how-to-grow

Masats, J. (2021, June 30). Acai cultivation. Botanical online. Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.botanical-online.com/en/cultivation/acai-how-to-grow

NAIDÍ. (2019, July 12). COCOCAUCA. https://cococauca.org/2019/07/12/naidi/

NParks: Euterpe oleracea. National Parks Board. (n.d.). Retrieved May 29, 2022, from https://www.nparks.gov.sg/florafaunaweb/flora/2/6/2628

Tomlinson, P. B., Horn, J. W., & Fisher, J. B. (2011). Subfamily Calamoideae. In The Anatomy of Palms. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:osobl/9780199558926.003.0010

Yamaguchi, K. K. de L., Pereira, L. F. R., Lamarão, C. V., Lima, E. S., & da Veiga-Junior, V. F. (2015).
Amazon acai: Chemistry and biological activities: A review. Food Chemistry, 179, 137–151.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.01.055

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13. Sacha Inchi: Super Seeds Plukenetia volubilis, commonly known as sacha inchi, is extremely valuable as both a source of nutritional and medicinal benefits. Sacha inchi has been cultivated for thousands of years in the Amazon Basin by the Incas and other indigenous peoples, who have used it as both food and medicine. The incredible properties of this plant are primarily derived from the seeds and the oil extracted from them. The seeds contain very high levels of essential polyunsaturated fatty acids, including both omega-3 and omega-6, which have been shown to promote cardiovascular health. The seeds additionally have high protein content and have been used in traditional Peruvian cooking as a nutritious staple. A number of dishes are traditionally prepared with sacha inchi, including snacks, confections, soups, and porridges. Compounds found in the seeds have been used by indigenous groups to treat a variety of illnesses, including rheumatism, muscle pain, high cholesterol, cardiovascular issues, and gastrointestinal ailments. Scientific studies of compounds derived from sacha inchi have suggested that the plant may be useful in suppressing tumor proliferation and treating dermatitis, chronic inflammatory diseases, and cardiovascular disease. The plant has also been found to have antioxidant properties, which may promote health and support immune function. The versatility of the seeds and seed oil derived from sacha inchi as both highly nutritious food and extremely powerful medicine encourages further study and cultivation of this fascinating plant, which is not fully domesticated. The high genetic diversity of wild sacha inchi plants offers a wonderful starting point to cultivation efforts, with the potential for increasing yield and optimizing nutrient levels. By Amanda Bueno-Kling and Giselle Correa #sachainchi
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small drupe, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
16. Carob: From Pod to Pantry Ceratonia siliqua, commonly known as carob, St. John’s Bread, and locust bean, is a flowering deciduous tree in the legume family that produces large seed pods with a wide range of commercial uses. Carob has existed long before the start of agriculture, with origins across the Mediterranean basin dating back to the Paleolithic age. Recent phylogenetic data suggests domestication of carob occurred through localized selection of wild genotypes, with some long-distance westward dispersal events by the Romans or Arabs. Carob trees are valued ecologically for their low maintenance, high adaptability to poor soil conditions, and drought resistance, with some even living for 100 years or more. They feature thick, dark green and broad foliage, thus ornamental trees can be found throughout California, Australia, and other parts of the world with Mediterranean climate. However the main attraction of Ceratonia siliqua is its brown, leathery pod. The carob pod can be split into two main components: the pulp and the seeds. The naturally sweet pulp has a sugar composition of up to 48-56%, though it also contains cyclitols, fiber, and polyphenols such as tannins. Carob pulp is a nutritionally significant source of amino acids, minerals, and vitamins. The seeds contain a galactomannan gum also known as carob bean gum (CBG) or locust bean gum (LBG) used as a thickening agent in many food products. Carob pods are associated with the prevention and treatment of a wide variety of diseases, including diabetes, hyperlipidemia, irritable bowel syndrome, and colon cancer. In the past few decades carob has been marketed simply as a healthier chocolate alternative, but its rich history, health benefits, and potential applications in areas affected by climate change should allow it to stand on its own as a staple in the pantry and beyond. By: Chloe Fuson and Skylar Yee #Carob
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
18. Annona cherimola: The most delicious fruit known to man Cherimoya is a fruit from the genus Annona, it is cone shaped, green, leathery skin with a creamy and sweet flesh. The fruit has a sweet taste and it is rich in nutrients and minerals. Due to its creamy textures, it is also called the custard apple. It is believed to be native to the Andes Mountain range in South America but it has been distributed and planted in different areas of the world today. One of the major problems for cherimoya cultivation is inadequate natural pollination since the male and the female structures of each flower do not mature at the same time. Due to its rich mineral content cherimoya is known to have some health benefits including lowering blood pressure. However, cherimoya and other Annona species contain annonacin which is a toxin that can affect the nervous system and the brain. Some studies have suggested that high amounts of consumption of Annona fruits can lead to increased risk of a specific type of Parkinson’s disease that does not respond well to medication. The seeds can be toxic, so when eating the fruit, it is best for the skin and seeds to be discarded. While Cherimoya has lots of health benefits and can be delicious it needs to be eaten in moderation to avoid its negative effects on the nervous system. by Shiva Nia, Kyi Ther Min #Cherimoya
19. M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni
20. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit Pouteria lucuma is a fruit tree of the family Sapotaceae of the order Ericales native to the Andean Valley of South America. The fruit is commonly used in Peruvian desserts, especially icecream, for its unique flavor, often described as resembling maple, butterscotch, or sweet potato. It was used as a subsistence crop by the native peoples of coastal Chile and Peru as early as 700 BC. The fruit was an important part of fertility rituals of these peoples, as its consumption was thought to promote lactation in new mothers. No studies have been done to that effect, however there has been significant research into other medicinal properties of the fruit. The oil extracted from the seeds and skins of the fruit, which are typically discarded as industrial waste, has high phenolic content and has been shown to aid in wound closure and skin regeneration. These properties have made the fruit of special interest to the skin care industry. By Jasmine White, Quinn Schwabauer, Jin Zhu #lucuma
21. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack The avocado has extensive cultural and anthropogenic ties to human society, with three main cultivars representing the three different domestication and cultivation practices for the crop. The Mexican, Guatemalan and West Indian races (P. americana var. drymifolia, P. americana var. guatemalensis, and P. americana var. americana) are ancestors to more than 30 types of modern avocado cultivars, and have linguistic and historical ties to Mesoamerican cultures that domesticated them at different geographical locations and time periods. Not surprisingly, the different domestication and cultivation practices of the three ancestor cultivars have led to different optimal abiotic conditions for different types of avocados, with Latin America and Africa being the main suppliers for the majority of cultivars that enter the global market. Moreover, all parts of the plants can be used, although the most common part of the plant consumed is the fruit. The leaves and seeds are sometimes used as medicine, and the oil extracted from the fruit can also be used in medicine and cooking. Additionally, the avocado’s high concentration in fiber, folate, antioxidants, potassium, vitamin E, and magnesium per ounce makes this crop a superfood, and is most commonly used as an ingredient for guacamole. Modern society recognizes the importance of avocados, especially considering that we are entering an age where high-caloric foods are readily accessible and easier to purchase than healthy foods. As such, cultivation practices are also shifting from large-scale industrial productions that use heavy pesticides to smallholder farmers who can implement traditional cultivation practices that are more sustainable for the farmers and the ecosystems around these farms. By Amanda Leyel and Hojae Lee #Avocado
22. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin Myrciaria dubia (Kunth) McVaugh or camu camu, is a tropical shrub-like tree that is best-known by its highly acidic, nutrient-rich berries. The plant has been extremely important for the Yanomamo and Kayapo Indigenous peoples of the Amazon Basin, who have harvested them for thousands of years. Wild and domesticated populations alike are harvested by guiding canoes through the branches during the wet season. The camu camu plant grows to be about 4–8 meters tall, and both the leaves and berries are harvested for their nutritional and medicinal properties. Like many other species within the Myrtaceae family, camu camu evolved within the Amazon Basin, and grows along the rocky riverbeds and swamps in Brazil, Venezuela, Peru, Colombia, and Bolivia. There are significant gaps in knowledge in the phylogenetic history of the plant, which creates avenues for future research. In terms of phenology, camu camu plants synchronize their growth cycles according to the flood-levels of these watersheds, producing small bisexual white flowers during periods with low water levels. As the water levels rise, the plant transitions into its fruiting stage, where it produces small, reddish-purple fleshy fruits. The camu camu berries are known for their high vitamin C content, and small amounts of various amino acids and fatty acids. The berries of camu camu have many anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties, and they are a valuable food source to the birds, mammals, fish, and people living in the Amazon Basin. The growing scientific studies on the plant's medicinal properties have increased demand for the fruit globally. The growth in international markets has led farmers to harvest more camu camu berries, negatively impacting wild populations. By Nicole Phelan and Holland Smith #CamuCamu
23. Wolffia Globosa: The Super Small Superfood Wolffia globosa, which is commonly known as mankai, Asian watermeal, and duckweed, is a species of flowering plant that is currently considered to be the smallest known flowering plant! Wolffia globosa is a genus from the lemnaceae family native to Asia as well as pacific coasting countries. Wolffia grows in groups on the surface of lakes and large bodies of calm water, ponds, and even marshes together with other aquatic plants and life. Due to its rapid growth rate and the relative ease at which it grows on calm bodies of water, Wolffia globosa was traditionally only harvested, and not cultivated by indigenous peoples. Wolffia was initially discovered by William Roxburg, a Scottish botanist and surgeon practicing in parts of India in the late 1780s to early 1800s, in 1832. In 1984, Wayne P. Armstrong, nicknamed “Mr. Wolffia”, became the first individual to discover Wolffia Globosa in California while he was studying duckweeds from a lake nearby his lab near the San Dieguito river (Armstrong, 2021). Wolffia globosa is an extremely versatile plant. Initially, it was used by indigenous peoples as a protein packed vegetable, and it is still being used in traditional Thai cuisine. Due to the extremely fast growth rate of Wolffia globosa, indigenous peoples were also able to repurpose mankai, using it as feed for their livestock. Currently, Wolffia globosa has found itself at the center of superfood trends due to its phenomenal nutritional benefits. Outside of the culinary world, Wolffia globosa can be found at the center of research regarding new biofuels and potential bioremediation strategies to combat pollution. By Akshay Chellappa, Brian Estarella-Murphy, #Mankai
24. Ulluco: Resilience and Preservation Through Time Ullucus tuberosus (ulluco) is a crop grown throughout South America for its starchy tubers and spinach-like leaves. Grown alongside humans for thousands of years, the genetic diversity of ulluco along with indigenous knowledge of the crop has enabled it to survive amidst challenges of Spanish colonial rule. One challenge was competition from introduced European cultivars such as barley and carrots. Another challenge was that Indigenous groups who cultivativated ulluco faced hardships and challenges throughout colonization that echo into modern times. Despite these barriers, Indigenous Andean groups continued cultivating ulluco on smaller scales. This preserved Indigenous agricultural methods, and therefore ulluco biodiversity, still today. Now, ulluco has been proposed as a crop that could help solve diminishing food supplies amidst climate change. By Audrey Hernandez, Justin Haggard #Ulluco
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, is a climbing shrub with a very deep history within indigenous South American tribes. Known by locals as guaraná, it has an easily recognizable fruit with an eyeball-like structure, giving it the name of “eye of the gods.” The seeds contain the highest concentrations of caffeine of any other plant – about four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Sateré Maué people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2,000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guaraná is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing it. Its importance to Brazilians has led to the deforestation of parts of the Amazon in order to make room to grow guaraná. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guaraná was over $13 billion and has continued to increase due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to the seed’s high caffeine content and unique flavor, its extract has become a widely used additive in energy drinks. The most recognizable of which is the very popular soda, Guaraná Antarctica, and is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng.
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