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1. 1 2022-05-25T23:31:04-07:00 Megan Chen 437c81235577cd34d86d461fc36d5c2cd1ba0d0a Debates about Origin Megan Chen 2 plain 2022-05-25T23:32:44-07:00 Megan Chen 437c81235577cd34d86d461fc36d5c2cd1ba0d0a
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3. 1 2022-05-25T23:29:29-07:00 Megan Chen 437c81235577cd34d86d461fc36d5c2cd1ba0d0a M. citrifolia Divergence Megan Chen 2 plain 2022-05-25T23:29:49-07:00 Megan Chen 437c81235577cd34d86d461fc36d5c2cd1ba0d0a

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• 1 2022-05-11T11:25:19-07:00 M. Citrifolia: A Distinctive Fruit with Exceptional Traits 86 M. citrifolia is a unique, flowering and fruit bearing plant that goes by many names such as the most notable, Tahitian Noni fruit, Indian Mulberry or Great Morinda. It has many deeply rooted cultural histories in many regions of the world because of its experiences in many trade avenues and nutritional and medicinal applications. The plant is most easily identifiable, as some of its names suggest, by the distinctive fruits it grows, a green or white, depending on the ripeness, typically mango sized, that is said to have a strong odor similar to cheese and also has a bitter taste. Although it may not be the most attractive plant in many senses, it has been found to be very useful with almost all parts of the plants, including the roots, leaves, seeds, bark, shoots, being used in various ways, whether it be for wellness, nourishment or trade value. Nowadays it is most often found in regions of Oceania, the areas of Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia, due to the favorable conditions of the tropical environments, as well as the agricultural practices of the Pasifika peoples over the past few thousand years. As a consequence of the now main homeland of M. citrifolia being the islands of the Pacific Ocean, discussions of the origination of the plant can sometimes be intricate, although some discourse and evidence can point to a certain continent as the place of emergence. Overall M. citrifolia has been utilized by numerous peoples and communities and continues to be a key element in several of these life ways. By: Megan Chen and Kokonow Kinney #noni plain 2022-05-29T14:34:54-07:00

  Nomenclature 

  M. citrifolia L. comes from a family called Rubiaceae which consists of shrubs, terrestrial trees, and herbs. In Hawaii, the species is called Noni, whereas in India it is called Indian Mulberry. The name is derived from the two Latin words “morus” and “indicus” which meant mulberry and Indian respectively (Chen, 2012). The L is in reference to Carl Linneaus who first described the species. The type specimen was first founded by Linnaeus and published on May 1, 1753 at the Species Planetarum (Tropicos). Some other common names of the M. citrifolia are cheese fruit (Australia), kura (Fiji), nenu (Cook Islands) and many more (Tropicos).

  Evolutionary History

  The genus, Morinda, contains about 100 species of small trees and shrubs (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). In the phylogenetic tree, M. citrifolia has botanical varieties such as M. citrifolia var. citrifolia, M. citrifolia var. bracteata, and M. citrifolia var. elliptica. It also has one cultivar called M. citrifolia cultivar Potteri (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). One of its varieties, M. citrifolia var. bracteata, is a small fruit found in Indonesia and Pacific Oceans with prominent bracts that are protruding from the fruit (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). There was a proposal made to conserve the name Morinda citrifolia with a conserved type. People have claimed that there may have been an error in naming the M. citrifolia because Linnaeus’ description of M. citrifolia refers to two illustrations, with one of them belong less well-known, M. coreia, and the more well-known, M. citrifolia (Chen, 2012). M. coreia became a lectotype and fell into the category of M. citrifolia (Chen, 2012). If the proposal was rejected, then there would be confusion with the naming because the old literature would still have the name filed under M. citrifolia, but the newer literature would be filed as M. nodosa for M. coreia (Chen, 2012). Changing the names would cause confusion since the fruit is used for both research and commercial purposes (Chen, 2012). Thus, the name Morinda citrifolia has been conserved. 

  Ecology/Life History

  M. citrifolia is native to Southeast Asia (Indonesia) and Australia and can live in terrestrial areas such as the secondary rainforest, monsoon forest, coastal forest, and shorelines and typically grow in climates that are tropical, subtropical, and monsoonal areas (Nelson, 2003). Their wild ancestors are not completely known, but researchers speculate that they may be found in Micronesia. The species is a very durable plant because they are able to grow and tolerate in a variety of soil conditions and harsh environments such as coral atolls, basaltic lava flows, and in high elevation (Nelson, 2003). Some locations can be disturbed forests, dry to mesic forests, alien grasslands, open areas near the shoreline, fallow areas, and waste places. Currently, the noni is grown in pantropical areas such as Eastern Polynesia (e.g., Hawai’i, Marquesas, Society Islands), Melanesia (Fiji, New Guinea, New Caledonia, etc.), Western Polynesia, and Micronesia (Guam, the Marshall Islands, etc.), Indonesia, Southeast Asia, and Australia (Nelson, 2003). In addition, M. citrifolia currently grows on open shores of Central and South America, the West Indies, and the Bahamas (Nelson, 2003). They are able to withstand drought for almost over 6 months; wild noni are able to grow in arid conditions and can potentially spend their entire lives in perpetual drought (Nelson, 2003). If a fire occurs, they are able to regenerate by growing new foliage via roots and stems. They are also able to grow well in either full sun or 0 to 80% shade. Although they are able to grow in windy areas, the overall yield and plant growth would be diminished. M. citrifolia typically grows 0.75 to 1.5 meters per year along with flowering and fruiting also being continuous throughout the year (Nelson, 2003). Their fruits are harvested when they are a white-gray translucent color, or when they turn fully soft and odorous. The species reaches maturity in about 18 months and can yield about 4 to 8 kg of fruit every month throughout the year. 

  Morphology

  
  → Vegetative 
  The species can be grown as small trees or shrubs that are about 3 to 6 m tall  (“The Noni - Botany”). However, there is variation within the species in fruit size, leaf morphology, and plant form (Nelson, 2003). The leaves are opposite, pinnately veined and the upper surface often contains domatia. The lower surface of the leaves contain pubescent domatia in axils of midrib and lateral veins (“The Noni - Botany”). The blades of the leaves are elliptic to elliptic-ovate which can be about 20-45 cm long and 7-25 cm wide. The petioles are stout, being 1.5-2 cm long and the plant has distinct stipules that are 1-1.2 cm long (Nelson, 2003). The apex of the leaves are 2-3 lobed (Nelson, 2003).

  
  
  
  → Reproductive
  The flowers of the noni are perfect or hermaphroditic, meaning that it has both male and female reproductive organs. The corolla is white colored, 5-lobed, and is obong-deltate (7 mm long). Since there are 5 petals in the flower, there are 5 stamens.  The style is approximately 15 mm long (Nelson, 2003). The fruits are fleshy and syncarp with yellow to white colorings (Nelson, 2003). The noni is 5-10 cm long and 3-4 cm in diameter (Nelson, 2003). The seeds of the fruit have a unique air chamber because it can survive after being submerged in water for months (Nelson, 2003). The flowers are pollinated by fruit bats, birds, and bees. If no animals are present, the flowers are able to self-pollinate, leading to them being mostly clones of themselves (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017).
   

  Historical Accounts

  The first documented nomenclature of M. citrifolia occurred in Sanskrit that described the species’ medicinal values, which led to being believed that the fruit could have been used by these communities as early as 3500 years ago (Chen, 2012). Captain James Cook, a British explorer, discovered that the natives of the Pacific Islands used Noni for both food and medicinal purposes (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). Although there is no indication of who introduced the noni, someone may have transported the fruit westwards into the Indian Ocean by sea currents, Seychelles, Marquesasm, and Easter Island (Rojas-Sandoval, 2017). 

   

  Domestication History

  Since the noni is a non-food crop, it is difficult to look back at evidence to where reports of domestication occurred. Despite its most common name of the Tahitian Noni fruit, as well as other suggestions of origination being Southeast Asia and Micronesia, South Asia has a higher probability and has been the most agreed upon center of origin (Anurudh, 2011). The oldest known references of the fruit's immediate ancestors’ occurrence, use, and cultivation appear in Vedic literature, the northwest region of the Indian subcontinent (Anurudh, 2011).  In terms of the timeline of domestication rather than origination, there are many assumptions and attitudes as India being the center of origin for the noni.  A plant like noni also would have a hard time originating without richness in biodiversity and ingenuity of local peoples, things this region would have in this area. India is rich in floristic diversity for M. citrifolia L. and its immediate ancestors. There are also 4 species found in India with the genus, Morinda: M. angustifolia, M. persicaefolia, M. reticulata, and 2 varieties of M. citrifolia (citrifolia and bracteata). The common thought is that the Indians' culture, religion and trade expanded to Southeast Asia and eventually made its way to Micronesia and Polynesia (Anurudh, 2011). These territories allowed a space for M. citrifolia to thrive even more so due to its tropical environments and small scale agriculture practices and thus was used for over 2000 years by Pasifika peoples (Anurudh, 2011).

  Cultivation Practices 

  Due to the long standing beneficial wellness and lifestyle qualities of the Tahitian noni fruit, M. citrifolia has a long standing history of horticulture throughout Oceania as well as many parts of the Asia continent. Noni is widely grown by Polynesian peoples but as the name indicates, it is most notorious in the islands of Tahiti and Pasifika regions overall. By way of passing knowledge through generations, the cultivation practices have been narrowed to two main ways of raising the plant, with advantages and disadvantages of both methods. One way is the traditional growing of the seed, or seed propagation. This procedure builds a strong and resilient plant, grounded to the Earth and providing for its caretakers. However, the amount of care and time it takes to reach the point where it bears fruit can be seen as an obstacle to some (“The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production”). The other technique is stem cutting, in which the curator divides a branch around 8-16 inches from the area that bears fruit and replants the new stem. This practice creates a routine that allows the plant to root quickly, although the flora is usually more susceptible to disease as well as harmful branching (“The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production”).

  Nutritional Value and Part of Plant Consumed 

  Nearly all parts of the leaves are used in some way including the leaves, flowers, fruits, bark and roots. The most widely used part of the plant, the fruit, is widely known for its medicinal properties. Research has shown that it may lower risk of chronic conditions in humans such as heart disease as well as diabetes due to its richness in antioxidants such as beta-carotene, iridoids, vitamin C, and vitamin E, iron, magnesium, phosphorus, and biotin (“Noni Fruit”). Fresh or dried leaves of the noni can be used to make teas or tonics to treat certain illnesses (Timboy, 2022).  White nonis are typically mashed and mixed with water and are gargled to soothe sore throats. Today, they are consumed as immune-boosting and anti-aging supplements (“Noni Fruit”). Polynesian, Micronesian, and Melanesian culture would also imply that the taste and smell of the fruit would drive away bad spirits. Traditionally, the noni was known as a famine fruit when there were hardships because it provided nutrition despite the pungent odor (“Noni Fruit”).

  Noni and Drosophila sechellia

  Female Drosophila sechellia carry a mutation in their gene called Catsup that inhibits egg production (“Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success”, 2014). In addition, female Drosophila sechellia have very low levels of L-DOPA, a precursor of dopamine, which controls fertility. Consuming the noni fruit, which has high levels of L-DOPA, would increase their levels of L-DOPA and successfully produce more eggs (“Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success”, 2014).

  
  
  
  Human Experience

  Thanks to the revolutionary ways of travel by the Indigenous populations of the Pacific Ocean, M. Citrifolia was carried throughout Oceania and traded between Islands and Pasifika peoples, again much due to the cultural value of medicine and sustenance (“Noni”). The ripe nonis can be mashed and have its seeds removed so that it can be used as  a poultice or can be used to treat constipation (Timboy, 2022). The wilted leaves of the noni can be used to treat cysts on the skin, whereas the fruit can be mashed so that it can treat uku, also known as head lice (Timboy, 2022). Apart from the consumption and remedial uses, Pasifika peoples also had lifestyle uses for the Noni fruit. One of the most widely used and innovative ways was using parts of the plants for dyes, whether it be for clothing, blankets or other fabrics and textiles (“Noni”). The roots would be processed and would dye the material a yellowish color, while the bark would yield a more red hue (“Noni”). Unripe fruits could also be used as slingshot ammo as a consequence of the solidity of the fruit in that state (“Noni”). There is also a Tahitian tradition when girls choose their partners by hiding behind a bush and throwing a noni fruit at them by the river (“Noni”). The partner would pick up the noni fruit, and find the girl that threw it at them (“Noni”). 
  In modern times, Noni is still most widely cultivated in the islands of the Pacific, but with new trade avenues, it is shipped all over the world. The fruit is processed and sold commercially as fermented fruit juice, fresh-squeezed fruit juice, fruit juice concentrates, fruit powders, oil, leaf powders (Nelson, 2003). These products are sold for either internal consumption (health supplements) or cosmetic use (Nelson, 2003). Since nonis have recently become a modern commercial product, it is predicted that the products would be sold worldwide because of its many health benefits.
   

  References

  1. Anurudh, S. (2011, October 12). Revisiting the origin of the domestication of noni (Morinda citrifolia L.). Plant Genetic Resources: Characterization and Utilizationte. Research Gate. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/231975768_Singh_Anurudh_K_Peter_PI_and_Singh_K_2011_Revisiting_the_origin_of_the_domestication_of_noni_Morinda_citrifolia_L_Plant_Genetic_Resources_Characterization_and_Utilization_2011_94_549-556_DOI101017S147 

  2. Chen, J. (2012). Morinda citrifolia - noni. Wiki.nus. Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://wiki.nus.edu.sg/display/TAX/Morinda+citrifolia+-+Noni 

  3. Morinda citrifolia L. Tropicos. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.tropicos.org/name/27900127  

  4. Nelson, S. C. (2003). Morinda citrifolia L. (noni) - university of hawaiʻi. College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/downloads/morinda_species_profile.pdf 

  5. Noni. Tahitian Secrets. (n.d.). Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.tahitiansecrets.fr/en/content/17-noni#:~:text=Noni%20is%20a%20scrub%2C%20widespread,is%20considered%20as%20a%20panacea. 

  6. Noni Fruit. Specialty Produce. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://specialtyproduce.com/produce/Noni_Fruit_12269.php 

  7. Rojas-Sandoval, J. (2017, August 5). Morinda citrifolia. Morinda citrifolia (Indian mulberry). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/34854#totaxonomicTree 

  8. The Noni - Botany . College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources . (n.d.). Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://www.tahr.hawaii.edu/noni/botany.asp 

  9. The Noni Website - Horticulture and Production. Retrieved May 27, 2022, from https://www.ctahr.hawaii.edu/noni/horticulture_production.asp  

  10. Timboy, M. (2022, May 18). La'au Lapa'au: Medicinal plants and their healing properties. Ke Ola Magazine. Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://keolamagazine.com/agriculture/medicinal-plants/ 

  11. Toxic Fruits Hold the Key to Reproductive Success. Max-Planck-Gesellschaft. (2014, December 9). Retrieved May 28, 2022, from https://www.mpg.de/8796707/fruit-flies-noni-fruit