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Plants & People: The Intersection of Botany and Human Experience

Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes

Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi

Nomenclature and Naming

The linnean binomial nomenclature of this plant is Lupinus mutabilis. Tarwi is in the genus Lupinus and the species is mutabilis. Lupinus is derived from “wolfish” and this refers to the highly organized structure of wolf packs. The term mutabilis is Latin for, mutable, variable, or liable to change. This name could have been chosen because of the variation seen in the colors and seeds that the L. mutabilis plant produces. Some common names for L. mutabilis include: tarwi, chocho, pearl lupin, and Andean lupin. Some of these common names are derived from indigenous naming; called tarwi by the Quechua people and tauri by the Aymara people.

Evolutionary History

L. mutabilis is hypothesized to descend from the wild ancestral parent, L. piurensis. This is hypothesized due to the morphological similarities between L. mutabilis and L. piurensis. Similar morphological traits include glaucous stems, palmate leaf structures, and large colorful flowers. However, a notable difference between the two species is that L. mutabilis has indehiscent pods, large pale seeds, and a higher seed germination rate. It is estimated that L. mutabilis split from its progenitor L. piurensis at around 2600 BP, BP refers to “before present,” also notated as 650 BC. This crop is hypothesized to have been domesticated in the Cajamarca region in Northern Peru. The first archeological evidence of L. mutabilis was found in the Mantaro Valley in Central Peru and dated back to 1800 BP. There has been recent evolutionary history within the L. mutabilis species with the cultivation of new varieties with low alkaloid content. Alkaloids make the taste of the seeds bitter, and seeds would have to be thoroughly washed to remove the flavor. So this led to an interest in breeding a variety of L. mutabilis with low alkaloid content, called L. mutabilis Sweet.

This phylogenetic tree compares the similarities between different lupine species found in the “New World.” This phylogeny documents the appearance of important traits such as digitated leaves and if it is an annual, survive one year, or perennial, survive two years, species. The phylogeny indicates that L. mutabilis has traits of digitated leaves, leaves in the shape of a palm with ‘digits,’ and is an annual species that sprout from seed and dies in one yearly cycle. L. mutabilis shares the trait of digitates leaves with many other Western New World lupine species.

Ecology and Life History

This crop is in the Fabaceae legume family and is an annual crop that dies off after producing bean pods. It is believed to have been domesticated in northern Peru due to its cultivation history that is heavily dependent on the high altitude of the Andes. It usually grows at higher altitudes ranging from 800 to 3000 meters. Although mildly resistant to drought and frosts, prolonged seasons with both will kill the crop.

The growing period lasts anywhere from 150-360 days, and the exact time length depends on the environment. This includes climate, altitude, and how these interact with the genetics of the plant. Development is much like other lupine species, including emergence from the seed, first leaf development, flower development, and pod/seed development. Tawri seeds have a short germination period, producing shoots within days. The flowers develop in mounds, and these mounds are actually flower clusters called a raceme. Raceme are separate flowers attached almost equidistantly by stalks connected to a central stem. A young tarwi plant will have raceme that are just developing, or with only flowers at the base of the stalk fully open, with unopened buds towards the top of the cluster. A mature tarwi plant will have a fully blooming raceme and developing seed pods. It also grows short, branched taproots that interact with rhizobia as the plant ages. Rhizobia are bacteria that exist in the soil that develop symbiotic relationships with legumes by establishing themselves inside the root nodules of the plants. They fix nitrogen that becomes available to the plant and surrounding plants once inside these root nodules, something these plants and bacteria cannot do independently otherwise. Successful inoculation with this bacteria is associated with higher yields. It can enrich the soil with nitrogen that would benefit not only L. mutabilis but other crops grown in rotations with it.

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

L. mutabilis has indeterminate growth patterns, meaning that, unlike other plants that stop growing in maturity, tarwi continues growing in height/width. It is also a plant with sympodial branching. It can be a very tall plant, with heights ranging from 0.5-2.8 meters. The leaves are typical and have a palmate structure. One leaf can be divided into 5-12 leaflets, which are lanceolate or oval in shape. A mature tarwi plant’s flowers are blue and purple, with small white banners and a touch of yellow-orange at the center. They grow in long mounds that extend above the rest of the plant. The plant develops seed pods anywhere from 5-10 cm in length. The seeds are about 5 mm in diameter and range from white to black, with mottled varieties of white with brown/black.

Tarwi flowers are arranged in an inflorescence structure that is a highly ordered cluster of flowers along the stem. These flowers come in various colors ranging between white and purple, but tarwi is mainly known for its purple color, which can be used for dyes. These flowers also have yellow banners. The morphology of these flowers includes five petals and corollas that reach between one to two centimeters in length. These flowers are predominately self-pollinating, but they can be cross-pollinated. After pollination, the plant produces bean pods with large seeds that are indehiscent and do not break apart. Each seedpod typically contains four to five seeds. The seeds produced by the L. mutabilis crop contain alkaloids which make them bitter, sometimes toxic, and unfavorable to pathogens and predators.

Historical Accounts

The history of Lupinus mutabilis is less documented than other Lupine species found in the Old World. Although the history of L. mutabilis needs more research, there is still archeological evidence documenting its importance. Tarwi has been cultivated in the Andes for at least 1500 years. There have been archeological findings of Lupinis scattered around Peru. Some evidence of tarwi has been found in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. The first finding of L. mutabilis was in Montaro Valley in central Peru and dated back to 1800 BP (Before Present). There have also been archeological findings of a ceremonial vessel from the pre-Inca period that has drawings of tarwi on it. Other than archeological findings, there is recorded evidence of the cultivation of these Lupines through Spanish tax records following the colonization of the New World. This Spanish tax record suggests that tarwi was grown at a large scale, approximated to be 10,000 hectares compared to the modern cultivation of 5,200 hectares in the 1980s.

Nutritional Value and Consumption

The seeds of the tarwi plant are consumed in different dishes. Tarwi contains high protein (46–48%) and oil (16–23%) contents and low amounts of starch. They are comparable to soybeans in their protein content, making them an ideal replacement plant for animal consumption. For these seeds to be edible, they must be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids in the beans. Otherwise, the beans will be bitter and unpleasant to eat. The beans are then ready to be consumed after being soaked. The texture of the beans is firm and smooth with a nutty taste. These beans have been used in dishes such as ceviche, which is served cold, salads, and soups. These seeds can then be pressed to make an oil that has health benefits. The oil in tarwi seeds contains Oleic and Linoleic acid. Oleic acid is an omega-9 fatty acid that lowers cholesterol and decreases the risk of heart disease. Linoleic acid has similar properties in that it also reduces the risk of heart disease. These acids in the tarwi oil make it a beneficial oil to consume. In addition to consuming the oil, tarwi has also been sold as flour that can be used in making baked goods. Other than consuming the tarwi seeds, the flowers of this plant have also been used to create dyes.

Domestication and Cultivation

The history of South American lupines is interesting due to its complexity and lack of clarity until recently. This is due to the lack of research on the lupine species of the Andes, which have not benefited from a deep understanding of their domestication. All domesticated lupines share similar characteristics that make them favorable for agriculture, including nitrogen fixation and edible parts of the plant. However, L. mutabilis specifically has been relatively hidden, leaving the rest of its history prior to and during domestication to be a mystery. In a recent study by Atchinson et al, researchers collaborated to uncover more about the domestication history of tarwi. The results showed to support that L. mutabilis forms a monophyletic group that is within the clade of L. piurensis, making L. piurensis the most likely living descendant of the original parent plant of tarwi. Additionally, archeological evidence shows that the first tarwi lupine seeds found that is tarwi as we know it today, and not just another wild lupine, is found in a site in Mantaro Valley. This dates back to 1800 BP, and the researchers, therefore, make the estimate that tarwi was domesticated sometime between 1800 BP and 3450 BP by the pre-Incan people of the Andes.

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Historically, tarwi cultivation has been done only in high elevation areas ranging from 1650 and 3300 meters, such as the Andean highlands. For most of its history, L. mutabilis has been solely cultivated by Andean civilizations, with archeological evidence that it was cultivated by pre-Incan and Incan peoples. Today, it is still Andean growers that grow most of the tarwi grown in the world. Laborers are usually locals that know the crop and live in close proximity to the fields. While there have been recent investments in establishing tarwi cultivation in Europe, these developments are fairly recent and have not yet boomed like other Andean staple crops like quinoa and potatoes. L. mutabilis can be cultivated in rotation with other crops such as potatoes and cereals, as well as other plants that would benefit from its nitrogen fixation abilities. Harvest usually occurs 150-300 days after germination, with the seed pods being almost dry. The yield per hectare is about 500 to 1000 kg under good conditions.

Human Experience and Future Uses

This crop has been vital to those native to the Andes. The tarwi plant was cultivated extensively in the past due to its high protein and oil content. The tarwi plant flourished in poor soil due to its ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, and it was often used in crop cycling with other Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. These factors make tarwi a dependable plant. While tarwi is a crop that many have forgotten, people are now actively looking to cultivate it more. There have been community projects centered around the rural cultivation of tarwi in Peru, where the income from these new markets goes back to the Quechua community. The project is centered around giving Quechua women the skills to cultivate tarwi. This project strengthens women's role in their families as they receive income from this cultivation and food that they can bring back to their families. This project aims to help the Quechua people in the province of Huayalas fight against poverty and malnutrition. Outside of South America, tarwi is being recognized as a nutritional crop that can be a replacement for meat. International use could help to shift away from relying on animal consumption and decrease the use of soybeans as a more economical option.

References

Aïnouche, A., Bayer, R.J., & Misset, M.T. (2004). Molecular phylogeny, diversification and character evolution in Lupinus (Fabaceae) with special attention to Mediterranean and African lupines. Plant Systematics and Evolution, 246, 211-222. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-004-0149-8

Atchison, G., Nevado, B., Eastwood, R., Contreras-Ortiz, N., Reynel-Rodríguez, C., Madriñán, S., Filatov, D., & Hughes, C. (2016). Lost crops of the Incas: Origins of domestication of the Andean pulse crop tarwi, Lupinus mutabilis. American Journal of Botany, 103. https://doi.org/10.3732/ajb.1600171

Carvajal-Larenas, F. E., Linnemann, A. R., Nout, M. J. R., Koziol, M., & van Boekel, M. A. J. S. (2016). Lupinus mutabilis: Composition, Uses, Toxicology, and Debittering. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 56(9), 1454–1487. https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2013.772089

Chalampuente-Flores, D., Bastidas, C. T., & Sørensen, M. (n.d.). The Andean Lupine-‘El Chocho’ or ‘Tarwi’ (Lupinus Mutabilis Sweet). 6.

Cowling, W., Buirchell, B., & Tapia, M. (1998). Lupin. Lupinus spp. Promoting the conservation and use of underutilized and neglected crops. 23.

Croyle, L. (2019, October 23). Foods of Peru: What is Tarwi and How to Eat it. Traveling and Living in Peru. https://www.livinginperu.com/foods-of-peru-what-is-tarwi-and-how-to-eat-it/

Dtarazona. (2009). Español: Ceviche de chochos. Huari, Ancash, Perú. Own work. https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8023297

Gulisano, A., Alves, S., Martins, J. N., & Trindade, L. M. (2019). Genetics and Breeding of Lupinus mutabilis: An Emerging Protein Crop. Frontiers in Plant Science, 10. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpls.2019.01385

Hondelmann, W. The lupin — ancient and modern crop plant. Theoret. Appl. Genetics 68, 1–9 (1984). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00252301

How tarwi is improving Andean women’s living conditions. (2015, September 6). LifeGate. https://www.lifegate.com/tarwi-andean-women

Klowo_645_fullsize.jpg (841×1200). (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://storage.googleapis.com/powop-assets/lowo/KLOWO_645_fullsize.jpg

Tarwi (Lupinus mutabilis) – Cultivariable. (n.d.). Retrieved May 26, 2022, from https://www.cultivariable.com/instructions/other-vegetables/how-to-grow-tarwi/

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Puno%2C_Peru_%28February_2015%29.JPG

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1. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Mellanie Gamero and Jacqueline Duong
2. Moringa oleifera: Domestication Histories and Emerging Deviations from Indian Origin The superfood, Moringa oleifera, has a rich history deeply rooted in its native Indian domestication and usage. Also widely known as “The Miracle Tree”, M. oleifera is often recognized by its white flowers and long-seed pods that are greatly sought after. Not only does M. oleifera provide an incomparable food source and multipurpose oil through its pods, but all parts of the plant may be used and consumed. The versatility of this plant is venerated in Indian culture where its consumption and, most importantly, medicinal usage involve all parts of the plant. Due to its spread across other countries, the species and its utilization have evolved to suit individual cultures and their own domestication desires. In the Philippines and North and South Africa, its nutritional value is greatly relied upon to treat malnourishment, purify water, and support community infrastructure while the Indian native medicinal usage is less emphasized and not well known. The Americas, on the other hand, have increasingly toyed with the novel M. oleifera ‘organic-superfood’ craze that tends to remove emphasis from its cultural value and multipurpose utilization to instead fawn over its supposed energy boosts, skin care implementations, and uses in its powder – likely less effective and increasingly more expensive than the original. Though its original purpose grows increasingly colonized, the domestication ventures globally of this superfood continue the legacy of the Moringa oleifera species itself – marked genetic increases in energy production associated with plastic to nucleus gene duplications. As each nation tends to and selects for various aspects of this energy contribution – whether for the nutritional, medicinal, or vanity value – the variation in these M. oleifera may grow towards eventual speciation. By George Vetushko and Lauren Guevara #drumsticktree
3. Salvia hispanica: A Source of Strength Traditionally a key component in Aztec and Mexican culture, chia seeds have been used for centuries for their nutritional, decorative, and medicinal qualities. A common staple in many cultures around the world, these tiny seeds pack a powerful punch and are enjoyed by fitness enthusiasts everywhere. While the seeds themselves are easily recognizable, less well known is their source: a plant known as Salvia hispanica. This flowering, annual herb has a fascinating history and distinctive morphological traits that have evolved over time due to human cultivation. By exploring the myriad ways that this plant has interacted with people over the course of history, we can gain a greater appreciation of how chia seeds have been an important source of strength and inspiration for many. By Joshua Matsuda, Sarah Hoffman, Julia Lindner #Chia
4. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
5. Breadfruit: The Intrepid Fruit's Journey with Indigenous Peoples and Colonization Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) is an intrepid dicot with a rich history and culture surrounding it. Breadfruit trees are a single-trunked tree with a spreading, evergreen canopy. Breadfruit trees are monoecious with both the male and female flowers on the same tree. The male flowers are club shaped, and the female flowers are thousands of small flowers with 2 anthers around a spongy core. The name is derived from the Greek words bread and fruit (artos = bread & karpos = fruit). There are over 2,000 documented names because of its widely spread distribution across the Pacific. A. altilis originated from the South Pacific and was later spread throughout Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia by voyagers. As a result, breadfruit is adapted to a wide variety of climates and conditions in equatorial lowlands. In addition, breadfruit trees thrive in humid tropics and can grow in a variety of soils. Breadfruit became a staple crop because of its nutritional and medicinal value. In the 1700s, breadfruit’s ease of maintenance and nutritional value made it a prime crop, in the eyes of colonizers, to feed African slaves in the Caribbean. Today, breadfruit continues to have an important role in sustainability, fighting malnutrition, and increasing food security. There are research efforts to increase the nutritional value and initiatives to promote breadfruit cultivation in tropical and subtropical regions. For example, The National Tropical Botanical Garden established the Breadfruit Institute in 2003 in hopes of promoting the study of breadfruit for agroforestry, reforestation, global food security and economic development.
6. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes Smallanthus sonchifolius is a plant that in recent years has gained a lot of traction by western and European countries. Its ability to store sugars in the form of carbohydrates has resulted in a very profitable market for yacon cultivators. People have begun looking at this food as a healthier alternative to sugars which has in turn led to its global expansion. A food that was once limited to exist within the Andes has now expanded to other continents. Yacón's human impact has been a part of South American culture for thousands of years, as its is believed to have originated during Incan times. During this time period yacón's consumption was limited to religious events today however, it is a food that is consumed globally. Apart from its sweet tuberous roots, other pars of the plant that are edible are the leaves and the flowers. Together these attributes allow yacón to be known as one of the superfoods from the Andes. By Jessica Manriquez and Amanda Lin #yacón
7. Irvingia Gabonensis: The Untapped Diversity of Dika Plant Irvingia gabonensis is a multipurpose, undomesticated fruit tree native to West and Central Africa. Belonging to the family of Irvingiaceae, this evergreen tree species can grow to a height of 40 meters and attain a diameter of about 120 centimeters. The tree produces mango-like fruits that are well known for their nutritious kernels. Even though the fruit of this plant is also referred to as the African bush mango, the plant has no connection to the actual mango fruit. The dika tree can be found in the dry and wet tropical zones such as Nigeria, Angola, Uganda, Congo, Cameroon, Ghana, Togo, and Benin. It is also known to grow in farmland areas, semi-deciduous forests, and gallery forests. Despite its obscurity on the international level, this species should hardly be considered a minor resource. Almost all parts of the plant have a use from its fruit to its bark. Additionally, it serves as a main source of food and income for indigenous groups in Africa such as the Baka tribe from Central Africa. Due to how prized this plant species is, the dika plant is left untouched by the indigenous people when forests are cleared. Once domesticated, the plant can potentially be used to treat the high levels of malnutrition in Africa. Yet, with increasing local and regional demand for the plant’s kernels, the African bush mango has been facing intense exploitation. Additionally, the disappearance of local wildlife such as elephants are affecting the plant’s dispersal. As a result, the I. gabonensis plant has been classified as a highly endangered species. By Ian Morris and Nikhitha Nair #dika
8. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Ismael Rodriguez & Catherine Nordstrom #Goji
9. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships Contrary to its name, the tiger nut is the edible tuber of Cyperus esculentus, a sedge that originates from the Mediterranean area. While it was considered a valuable crop in pre-dynastic Egypt where it was even entombed with Egyptian officials, Cyperus esculentus became widely known as an invasive weed during the 19th century. Because of its low yield, it was never considered valuable enough to cultivate as a cash crop. Once again, however, the tiger nut is regaining its popularity but now as a superfood. With its high fiber content and ability to promote gut health, it continues to rise in popularity as one of many superfoods available in the market today. By Phan Tran, Karla Gonzalez
15. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small fruit, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
17. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica Known for being rich in both nutrition and history, the amla berry or as Carl Linneaus named it in 1753, Phyllanthus emblica, can be classified as India’s “Wonder Berry.” Originally believed to come from the semi-arid areas and plains of Northern India, the plant is native to Asia's tropic south-eastern regions such as Vietnam, Laos, and Thailand. Such regions provide conditions like mixed forests and elevations, that the plant cannot live without. However, with the fruit’s beneficial properties being so popular, countries all over the world cultivate the amla berry with India well beyond 100,000 acres of amla development. The amla berry’s influence has even reached as far as the United States where seed distribution first began in the early 1900s. It is said that the Indian god Brahma’s tears germinated the first seeds. In fact, the origin of the fruit’s usage can be traced hundreds of years ago where it was and still used today as a healing remedy. This fruit has been used to cure fevers, joint inflammations, and constipation for hundreds of years. Even recent research has suggested that the antiviral and antibacterial properties of the amla berry may be able to prevent cancer, diabetes, and excessive cholesterol. Despite only being the size of a golf ball, the amla berry is very high in vitamin C, vitamin E, vitamin A, iron, and calcium. In contrast to the size, these berries grow on trees that can reach heights of 12 meters all while surrounded by the beauty of greenish-yellow and pink flowers running across the branchlets. Ultimately, it is safe to say that such a plant is truly a wonder. By Natalie Nartz and Matthew Nguyen #amla
25. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae) Paullinia Cupana, nature’s caffeine tablet, has a very deep history within native Americans that resided in South America. Known by locals as guarana, “drink of the Lord”, it has a very easily recognizable eye ball like structure, with a large black seed surrounded by bright red fruit. The seed contain an extremely high concentration of caffeine and tanin, four times the amount found in coffee beans. It was commonly used by the Satere Maue people to make beverages and used as medicine for bodily discomfort as far back as over 2000 years ago. Nowadays, despite its popularity, the only country that cultivates guarana is Brazil, with over 15,000 hectares of land growing guarana. It is such an important crop for the people of Brazil, parts of the Amazon was cut down in order to make room to grow guarana. In 2006, the cash value of domestic production of guarana is over 13 billion, and it has only been increasing due to the growing domestic and international demand. Due to it’s high caffeine content within the seed, it is very widely used nowadays to be included in energy drinks. One extremely popular soda called Guarana Antarctica is the biggest competitor of Coca Cola in Brazil. By Tim Sisneros and Edward Teng #Guarana #Paullinia
26. Lorem Ipsum: The Fake Latin Text Substitute Elementum facilisis leo vel fringilla est ullamcorper eget nulla facilisi etiam dignissim diam quis enim lobortis scelerisque fermentum dui faucibus in ornare quam viverra orci sagittis eu volutpat odio facilisis mauris sit amet massa vitae tortor condimentum lacinia quis vel eros donec ac odio tempor orci dapibus ultrices in iaculis nunc sed augue lacus viverra vitae congue eu consequat ac felis donec et odio pellentesque diam volutpat commodo sed egestas egestas fringilla phasellus faucibus scelerisque eleifend donec pretium vulputate sapien nec sagittis aliquam malesuada bibendum arcu vitae elementum curabitur vitae nunc sed velit dignissim sodales ut eu sem integer vitae justo eget magna fermentum iaculis eu non diam phasellus vestibulum lorem sed risus ultricies tristique nulla aliquet enim tortor at auctor urna nunc id cursus metus aliquam eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin aliquam ultrices sagittis orci a scelerisque purus semper eget duis at tellus at urna condimentum mattis pellentesque id nibh tortor id aliquet lectus proin nibh nisl condimentum id venenatis a condimentum vitae sapien pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas sed tempus urna et pharetra pharetra massa massa ultricies mi quis hendrerit dolor magna eget est lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipiscing elit pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas integer eget aliquet nibh praesent tristique magna sit amet purus gravida quis blandit turpis cursus in hac habitasse platea dictumst quisque sagittis purus sit amet volutpat consequat mauris nunc congue nisi vitae suscipit tellus. By Lorem Ipsum #lorem #ipsum

Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes

Nomenclature and Naming

Evolutionary History

Ecology and Life History

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

Historical Accounts

Nutritional Value and Consumption

Domestication and Cultivation

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Human Experience and Future Uses

References

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Contents of this tag:

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Nomenclature and Naming

​​​​​Evolutionary History

Ecology and Life History

Vegetative and Reproductive Morphology

Historical Accounts

Nutritional Value and Consumption

Domestication and Cultivation

Where, how, and by whom are the plants grown?

Human Experience and Future Uses

References

This page has paths:

Contents of this tag:

This page references:

Evolutionary History