Salvia hispanica: A Source of Strength
Nomenclatural history
Salvia Hispanica is one of two plants that are commonly called ‘chia’. Chia is derived from the Nahuatl work ‘chian’ which means oily (https://eol.org/pages/578468/articles). In Mayan, chia meant ‘something that makes you strong’ (chia-salvia-hispanica.html). The Linnean binomial, Salvia Hispanica, was given by Charles Linnaeus, who confused the plant with a native plant from Spain. Salvia, which genus denotes all of the sages, comes from the latin ‘salvere’ which means to
Chia also was consumed by many indigenous tribes in what is today the United States. Each tribe had differing names for the chia plant, in Chumash, chia is called “itepesh” or “paj” ((https://escholarship.org/content/qt7d33504g/qt7d33504g.pdf?t=krns6y).
Evolutionary history
Salvia Hispanica is a member of the Lamiaceae family in the genus Salvia (the sages). The sages are among the largest angiosperm genera housing about 1,000 species. They have become widely distributed across the globe with many economically important species. The genus probably originated in Africa and dispersed first around the Mediterranean then the world. Salvia Hispanica belongs to the American subgenus Calosphace and is monophyletic. It is closely related to Salvia mexicana (Mexican bush sage), which is a prized ornamental plant (https://www.gardenia.net/plant/salvia-leucantha-mexican-bush-sage) . Through the domestication process, seed covering color, stem pigmentation, and shattering have been selected for and evolved within the species. The Chia’s wild ancestors were short height (less than 1 m), had striated stem pigmentation of anthocyanin, pubescent and open calyxes, small black seeds (less than 12.0 mg/100 seeds), short inflorescence (less than 15 cm), leaves and light blue corollas that are smaller than the domesticated varieties, and bushy growth form (Cahill, 2005). Commercially grown chia, through this domestication process, developed geographical and flowering time differences that have formed “reproductive barriers between wild types and domesticated varieties” (Cahill, 2005). With that being said, no distinct speciation has occurred between S. Hispanica’s wild ancestored and the commercial variety.
Ecology and life history
Salvia hispanica is widely distributed throughout Central and South America, found growing most effectively from latitudes 22°55’ N to 25°05’ S (Salvia hispanica (chia) – from nutritional additive to potential invasive species). It grows most effectively on sandy well drained soils with moderate salinity and pH, though is a relatively tolerant species and can grow on almost any substrate as long as there is good drainage. The optimal temperature range is between 16 and 26°C, but can grow anywhere between 11 and 36°. “Wetlands and areas along streams above 1800 m in pine or oak forest of Mesoamerica constitute ideal habitat for wild populations of S. hispanica.” (Cahill, 2005). Given its nativity to tropical locations it is intolerant to freezing.
Morphological description of vegetative attributes
Salvia hispanica is an annual herb, varying widely in height but reaching up to 5’9” tall. Leaves are ovately-shaped and oppositely arranged, with a clearly defined midrib and second-order veins. Plant morphology has been known to differ between wild-type and domesticated varieties. For instance, wild-type plants tended to have a shorter height (often less than 1 meter tall), shorter inflorescences, smaller leaves, striated stem pigmentation, and a more bushy growth form (Cahill, 2005). As chia was domesticated, it is likely that competition with neighboring crops such as maize selected for increased plant height, and that there was also selection for increased branching, which allowed more inflorescences per plant (Cahill, 2005).
Morphological description of reproductive attributes
Salvia hispanica produces tall inflorescence stems extending from the tip of each branch, each containing dozens of individual blue to purple flowers clustered in “spike mucronati.” In this way, each plant is capable of producing over 1,000 seeds over its brief lifetime (Cahill, 2005). These seeds are generally either black or white, and less than a millimeter in length. They are also very hydrophilic, and develop their characteristic gelatinous texture once soaked. As with vegetative morphology, morphology of reproductive features has also been greatly influenced by domestication. Studies have shown that domesticated varieties of chia show clear morphological distinctions such as greater seed mass, lack of seed shattering, and increased range of morphological and phenological diversity, which correlate with various changes in human agricultural practices (Cahill, 2005). In addition, domesticated varieties show more uniform morphology of numerous characters such as height, flowering time, and timing of seed maturation and dispersal. Seeds were also selected for decreased calyx pubescence density; while the pubescence traditionally allowed wild-type varieties to avoid over-hydration, this ended up causing irritation and allergenic effects to the threshers handling the seeds. Also, domesticated varieties of chia tend to have more compact inflorescences (small space between glomeruli), and are more uniform than those of wild populations.
Domestication history
While Salvia hispanica’s domestication process and evolution of traits were relatively simple, the exact time and location of first domestication are unknown due to a lack of archaeobotanical evidence (Cahill. 2005). The soft oily seeds of this herbaceous annual are not easily preserved. However, historical records suggest that it was first cultivated in the region between north-central Mexico and Guatemala, with smaller pockets of cultivation in Nicaragua and southern Honduras (Baron, 2021). Wild populations still exist in Guatemala today, suggesting that cultivated varieties may have been dispersed from this region (Cahill. 2005). Primitive domesticated varieties are rare, and are likely to go extinct if the current shift towards agricultural mechanization continues (Cahill. 2005).
Historical Accounts
Despite uncertainty surrounding initial domestication, the historical use and significance of Salvia hispanica is well documented. As early as 3500 B.C., chia was consumed by the Aztec and Mayan peoples of Mesoamerica, and it became a hugely important Mexican cash crop from 1500 to 900 B.C. along with maize and other grains (Baron, 2021). Chia seeds themselves were used for culinary, medicinal, cultural, religious, and artistic purposes. Interestingly, the seeds were offered to the gods in religious ceremonies and given as tribute from conquered nations (Cahill, 2005). Evidence for this comes from Aztec records, which document that 21 of the 38 provincial states gave chia seeds as an annual tribute to rulers (Cahill, 2005).
In the sixteenth century, the Spanish conquest of native civilizations permanently altered Salvia hispanica’s importance as a domesticated crop (Cahill, 2005; Sandoval, 1989). Spanish codices from the early 1500’s document large plots of land devoted to chia cultivation, but this cultivation plummeted quickly as European crops were brought in and Indigenous populations dwindled (Valdivia-López, 2015). For Spanish colonists, consumption of the crop was mainly limited to agua de chia, a drink made from chia seeds (Valdivia-López, 2015). Today, many traditional uses of chia have been lost due to the erasure of colonialism.
Cultivation History
Modern-day chia cultivation looks very different from traditional Aztec and Mayan cultivation. Over sixty varieties are grown today, primarily in Bolivia, Australia, Argentina, and Ecuador (Baron, 2021). Bolivia and Australia are the largest commercial growers of chia, whereas Mexico, Nicaragua, and Guatemala see more small-scale, local production (Baron, 2021). Salvia hispanica grows best between 23 degrees north and south of the equator, and it has never been genetically modified since it is relatively easy to cultivate, ship, and store (Baron, 2021).
While chia cultivation is largely mechanized today, it was traditionally done by hand. According to reports written by Hernández Gómez in the Mexican state of Guerrero, some traditional growers would toss seeds into the wind, without preparing the soil at all (Cahill, 2005). More recently, small-scale farmers such as Jesus de Latorre Guiterrez of Jalisco used machines to punch small holes in furrows, drop seeds in each, and leave them uncovered by soil (Cahill, 2005). In general, once Salvia hispanica begins flowering and the seeds emerge, the seed heads are removed and shaken in order to release the tiny seeds themselves (Cahill, 2005). The seeds are then placed in sacks or baskets for cleaning, without a need for preservatives. Due to culinary preferences and superstitions, black seeds were selectively harvested over white seeds, which allowed white-seed varieties to expand their populations at a higher rate (Cahill, 2005).
Nutritional Value and Part of the Plant Consumed
Chia seeds have long been consumed across many cultures for their various nutritional and associated health benefits. These seeds are known for their high oil content; each seed may contain up to 30% extractable oil, which is rich in omega-3 fatty acids. Seeds also “true proteins,” containing all 9 of the essential amino acids not naturally produced by the human body, and contain trace almonds of other nutrients such as calcium, phosphorus, zinc, and copper. Chia seeds have also been traditionally used to regulate blood sugar levels, treat high cholesterol, and lower blood pressure. They are also completely gluten-free, and contain many “phytonutrients,” which are biologically-produced chemicals containing compounds such as quercetin, kaempferol, myricetin, chlorogenic acid, and caffeic acid. This benefits both plants and human consumers; plants receive protection from insects, disease, drought, injury, heat, UV radiation, and various pollutants, while human health benefits such as lowered risk of cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and hypertension are also provided.
Chia may be consumed in a variety of ways, including entire seeds, ground seed flour, seed mucilage, and extracted seed oil. Many traditional Mesoamerican dishes have incorporated chia, including Pinole, an Aztec dish in which the seeds were roasted, milled into flour, and then combined with corn flour and water. This porridge was eaten as-is. They could also shape the chia into cakes to be cooked over an open fire.
Human Experience
The nutritious seeds were a key cultivar of Indigenous communities beginning 4,500 years ago throughout Mesoamerica, even in some communities, chia surpassed maize as a key component in a local person’s diet (https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/23818107.2019.1700550). The Tarahumara tribe, which are famously known for their incredible running feats consume chia in a drink called Iskiate, a mix of the seed lemon and water. Chia was incredibly important In Aztec society, so much so that its cultivation is included within the Codex Mendoza, an Aztec manuscript written in 1541 that contains history of Aztec rulers and conquests and describes Aztec daily life. Within the Codex, it was documented that “the city of Tenochtitlan received as tributes from conquered nations a minimum of 6,360 tons of maize, 4,410 tons of beans, 4,410 tons of chia, and 3,780 tons of amaranth, annually” showing how chia was essentially treated as a form of currency (https://waynecoates.com/AZchiaInfo/chia-seeds-history/).
A common way in which Aztec’s consumed chia was in a dish called Pinole, which involved the roasting and milling of the seeds, then combined with corn and water creating a porridge. This mixture was either consumed as is or shaped into cakes and heated over a fire. The Aztecs also pressed the seeds for oil, using it as a moisturizer and in face and body paints.
Though a highly utilized commodity in Mesoamerica, chia seeds did not become a global phenomenon until much more recently. Chia was brought to the US in 1977, through the commercialization of chia pets. The “inventor” of chia pets, Joe Pedott appropriated the use of chia sprouts by Oaxacan artists after visiting the city, in which chia sprouts are widely used in ornamental gardens throughout the area. He mirrored the terracotta figurines and presented them to American audiences which immediately, especially because of the catchy marketing slogan, took to this new product. Still with this integration within American and global culture, chia seeds were not widely consumed outside of Mesoamerica until the 2010s, when health food sectors began to market chia as a superfood. This superfood classification is the most dominating sentiment surrounding chia today. Chia had become widely available in any grocery store, being consumed for its proposed health benefits in smoothies, puddings, oatmeal, and more for its nutritional content.
