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Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth?

40688 Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Ismael Rodriguez & Catherine Nordstrom #Goji

Goji Berry: Lycium barbarum & Lycium chinense

As the range of L. barbarum and L. chinense has radiated out from China across Asia and Europe, many names have been given to both the plant and berry. In Mandarin, 枸杞子 (gǒuqǐzi) is the name for the berry. The colloquial term we use now, “goji” is a mispronunciation of the Pinyin name for the berry. Many other names have been given, including kuko no mi (クコの実) or kuko no kajitsu (クコの果実) in Japanese, gugija (hangul: 구기자; hanja: 枸杞子) in Korean, kỷ tử (杞子) or cẩu kỷ (枸杞) in Vietnamese, and dre-tsher-mai-dre-bu in Thai; English names include wolfberry, matrimony vine, The Duke of Argyll’s Tea Tree, among others. L. bararum was first given its scientific name in 1753 and L. chinense was named in 1768 (USDA ARS, 2022).

MORPHOLOGY

Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense are deciduous woody perennial plants which grow to heights of around 1-3 meters, L. chinense is generally a bit shorter and is primarily grown in southern China, while L. barbarum is taller and grown in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region of northern China and they are slightly taller (ChemEurope). Both species have robust root structures so they are often used as barriers for erosion. They are in the Solanaceae family along with many other plant foods like tomato, eggplant, and peppers (Britannica, 2017). Leaves grow in alternate arrangements or in groups of one to three leaves. They are generally a lanceolate shape with blunt or rounded tips. On average, the leaves are 7 cm long and 3.5 cm wide.

One to three flowers are bunched at the ends of stems that are 1-2 cm long. The calyx has short bell-shaped leaves and it is eventually broken when the berry begins to grow. The corolla of the goji flower is lavender and is 9-14cm long - each flower has five petals and stamens. The stalks of the stamens are longer than the anthers. The pistil is 8-11.5 mm long and the stamens are 3-8mm long (Government of South Australia, 2007). L. barbarum and L. chinense are self-pollinating, but they can also be cross-pollinated by insects. They have a long flowering period, so they are appreciated by many pollinators. Flowering occurs from June through September and berry maturation from August to October, with some variation due to climate differences (Queensland Government, 2016).

The goji berries themselves are generally a vibrant red color, though there are some interesting color variations among specifically cultivated strains. They only reach a length of around 0.7-2cm, the berries of L. chinense smaller than those of L. barbarum. There are varying numbers of seeds, but it is generally within ten to thirty seeds (Bernardello L, 1986) - L. chinense has more seeds, making it the more bitter species of goji berry.

Although the exact domestication history of the Goji Berry is unknown, gene mapping has allowed for a map showing the likely evolution and spread of the Lycium Species (L.). L. Barbarum and L. Chinense are used almost interchangeably, but L. Barbarum is often referred to as the superior species in quality of berry. It also grows further North than its counterpart. L. Barbarum was likely domesticated in Zhongning County- a county in northern China that borders the Yellow River. This is where Goji Berries thrived as a wild species. From 220 BCE to 900 CE, Chinese Dynasties built an irrigation system that went from the Yellow River to the Ningxia Region. This passed right through Zhongning County and brought extra nutrients to the wild plants. As a result, the farmers in the area took the largest, richest, and reddest berries for themselves; storing the seeds for future harvest. Around the time this irrigation channel was under construction, the Goji berry was also growing in popularity as a medicinal herb and was likely further farmed for its utility. As farmers picked out the best specimens and planted those seeds, the Goji berry diverged from its ancient, wild relative. As farmers kept up the practice of selecting for the best berries, they eventually separated the Goji Berry plants into an estimated 10 landraces known today.

These landraces may seem insignificant as they are all Goji Plants, but the quality of berry varies from one landrace to the next. Recently, the Goji Berry skyrocketed as a cure-all type of food and has also grown in popularity outside of China. This caused a rush in which farmers all over the globe have attempted to cultivate Goji Plants for their lucrative yields. However, cultivation is tough outside of the native Chinese soil and yields are usually smaller and finicky outside of China. Therefore, 45% of Goji Berries are still harvested in China where the best environment and landraces produce the most nutritious berries. The optimal conditions for the best berries are sunny yet moist conditions that lack acidic soil. The best method to farming the Goji plants is as follows: plant Goji cuttings about two meters apart during Autumn, trim to promote branch growth for the first two years, water generously, allow plenty of sunlight, harvest from June - October as needed. The plants are fragile for the first two years and need constant attention, but they will become drought resistant after two years as they begin to produce berries. It is recommended to harvest by hand since the berries will easily bruise and leak with any rough handling. Also, one should prune the plants so that they grow only one vertical stem trimmed to a comfortable height for harvesting and produce lateral branches. Practices vary depending on location, but those listed above have worked well in areas such as China, Tibet, Mongolia, Canada, and a diversifying array of new areas worldwide. After harvest, most berries are dried for preservation as they may be shipped to other continents and regions.

As stated before, the Goji Berry is usually consumed dry, but there are myriad other ways to enjoy the tasty treat. Commonly, the berry is cooked as a vegetable within a soup. However, recent strides have introduced consumption through pills, juices, powdered spices, topical lotions, and teas just to name a few. Even other parts of the Goji Plant are eaten such as the leaves and shoots. While the leaves serve as both a vegetable and loose-leaf tea, the shoots are only eaten as a vegetable.

BIOGRAPHY

Gross, Paul M.; Xiaoping Zhang; and Richard Zhang (2006). Wolfberry: Nature's Bounty of Nutrition & Health. Charleston, South Carolina, United States: BookSurge Publishing. ISBN 1419620487. ISBN 9781419620485.

Earl Mindell and Rick Handel (2003), "Goji: The Himalyan Health Secret". Momentum Media, 58 pages. ISBN 978-0967285528

(USDA ARS, 2022) USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System. 2022.

Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN Taxonomy). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. URL: https://npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxon/taxonomydetail?id=22939. Accessed 23 May 2022.

Britannica, The Editors of Encyclopaedia. "list of plants in the family Solanaceae". Encyclopedia Britannica, 29 Jun. 2017, https://www.britannica.com/topic/list-of-plants-in-the-family-Solanaceae-2026039. Accessed 23 May 2022.

Government of South Australia (2007), "Lycium barbarum". Online fact sheet on Electronic Flora of South Australia (eFloraSA). Accessed on 2018-05-04.

Bernardello L. Revisión taxonómica de las especies sudamericanas de Lycium (Solanaceae) Bol Acad Nac Cien Córdoba Ar. 1986;57:173–356. [Google Scholar]

Queensland Government (2016), "Lycium barbarum". Online fact sheet on Weeds of Australia website. Accessed on 2018-05-04.

Gong, Y., Yu, Z., Yao, Q., Chen, H., Mi, T., & Tan, J. (2015). Seasonal Variation and Sources of Dissolved Nutrients in the Yellow River, China. International journal of environmental research and public health, 12(8), 9603–9622. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph120809603

CalFlora: Information on California plants for education, research and conservation. (2000) The CalFlora Database, Berkeley.XXXX

This page has paths:

Project Pages Christopher Gilman
Contents of this path:
1. Aguaje: Tree of Life
2. Goji Berries: The Key to Eternal Youth? Goji Berries have become a symbol of the Superfood movement which has continued to gain traction in the US and across the world. Although they have served as a token of this emerging trend, goji berries have been renowned in Asia for their nutritious qualities for many centuries. Its use has been documented for almost 2000 years in traditional Chinese medicine (Gross et al., 2006). The goji industry has skyrocketed during the 21st century as they’ve been recognized for their nutritious qualities. Goji berries have a rich cultural history which has contributed to their claim to fame. In 2003, health writer Earl Mindell distributed a booklet which suggested that goji berries had anti-cancer properties - this drove their entry into the Superfood market. His claims were based on the myth of Li Qing Yuen; the herbalist supposedly consumed goji berries daily which allowed him to live 256 years (Earl Mindell and Rick Handel, 2003). While Mindell’s booklet was full of false exaggerations, there is merit to many of his claims regarding the nutritional benefits of goji berries. Two species are colloquially known as goji berries: Lycium barbarum and Lycium chinense. Their unique vegetative and reproductive morphology makes harvesting the berries labor intensive. Both the goji berry and immature leaves from L. chinense and L. barbarum are eaten by many for their health benefits - while the benefits have been known for centuries, the underlying macromolecular structure that dictates these properties is only being explored in more recent decades. By Ismael Rodriguez & Catherine Nordstrom #Goji
3. Aronia melanocarpa: fine wines to phenols
4. Aristotelia chilensis: The Super Fruit
5. Avocado: New World Nutient Pack
6. Camu Camu: The Super Fruit of the Amazon Basin
7. Eragostis tef: From Injera to fertility and evertyhing else in between
8. Carob: From Pod to Pantry
9. From medicine to industry: the multifaceted history of Guaraná (Paullinia cupana Kunth., Sapindaceae)
10. Lepidium meyenii: The fertility root Maca… maybe you’ve heard of it, maybe you consume it on a daily basis. Maca is the highest elevation crop known today, and is native to the high elevation Andes mountains in Peru, growing in elevations up to 4500 m high! Maca has been a highly valued commodity for many indigenous peoples within the Andes mountains of Peru throughout history and persists to be valued today. Known for its turnip-like shape due to its bulbous hypocotyl, it is highly sought after for its roots. Consuming the roots will result in many notable benefits, such as nutritional benefits, mood improvements, and enhancements in energy, strength… even fertility, all which are backed by numerous studies. These benefits are all due to the numerous nutrients, fibers, bioactive compounds, and natural compounds lepidiline A and B that are contained within Maca. Combined, they all make Maca the nutritional powerhouse that is today. Once this nutritional powerhouse was advertised to the world, it became an immediate hit. The demand for Maca created a market boom and countries started trying to cultivate the plant to meet the demand. One country that cultivated Maca is China. In the high mountains of Yunnan, Maca was successfully cultivated and thus became a common ingredient in Chinese traditional medicine. As such, Maca remains an important dietary source not only in Peru, but as well as worldwide! With more research being done today to further explore what components are in Maca, only time will tell what additional health benefits Maca has to offer us. By Author Names
11. Tarwi: A forgotten gift from the Andes Tarwi is an Andean lupine that has been cultivated by those native to the Andes for at least 1500 years. The scientific name of this lupine is Lupinus mutabilis, Lupinus meaning “wolfish,” and mutabilis meaning “variable.” It can survive in high elevations ranging from 1650 to 3300 meters. This plant is a dependable crop that has been used by the pre-Inca and Inca people in crop cycling with other native Andean plants such as quinoa and potatoes. Documentation of the use of tarwi has been recorded archeologically in Naza culture tombs and Tiahuanaco ceramics. There are also records of high cultivation of tarwi through Spanish taxation records that recorded 10,000 hectares cultivated. The use of tarwi decreased following Spanish colonization when Old World crops were introduced to the area; by 1980, only 5,200 hectares of tarwi were cultivated in Peru. Tarwi has colorful purple flowers and palmate leaves, making the plant strikingly beautiful. The tarwi plant can self-pollinate and does not rely on one specific pollinator making it less vulnerable to fluctuations in pollinator populations. In addition to being dependable in pollination, tarwi can be planted in poor soil because it can fix nitrogen in the soil. The tarwi plant contains alkaloids, making it less susceptible to pathogens and pests. The seeds of this plant are consumed, but the seeds need to be soaked in water for two to four days to remove the water-soluble alkaloids that make the seeds bitter. As an Andean native plant, Lupinus mutabilis has various properties and uses that have enhanced the diets and lives of Peruvians and other South Americans. By Lysol Patino and Sarah Simpson #tarwi
12. Pouteria lucuma: An exploration of historical and modern medical uses of the Andean lucuma fruit
13. Irvingia Gabonensis: The Dika Diet Irvingia gabonensis is a multipurpose, undomesticated fruit tree native to West and Central Africa. Belonging to the family of Irvingiaceae, this evergreen tree species can grow to a height of 40 meters and attain a diameter of about 120 centimeters. The tree produces mango-like fruits that are well known for their nutritious kernels. Even though the fruit of this plant is also referred to as the African bush mango, the plant has no connection to the actual mango fruit. The Ogbono tree can be found in the dry and wet tropical zones such as Nigeria, Angola, Uganda, Congo, Cameroon, Ghana, Togo, and Benin. It is also known to grow in farmland areas, semi-deciduous forests, and gallery forests. Despite its obscurity on the international level, this species should hardly be considered a minor resource. Almost all parts of the plant have a use from its fruit to its bark. Additionally, it serves as a main source of food and income for indigenous groups in about twenty countries such as the Baka in Central Africa. It is also the most widely sold plant of all forest products in the countries of Cameroon and Nigeria. Due to how prized this plant species is, the dika plant is left untouched by the indigenous people when forests are cleared. Yet, with increasing local and regional demand for the plant’s kernels, the African bush mango has been facing intense exploitation. As a result, the I. gabonensis plant has been classified as a highly endangered species. By Ian Morris and Nikhitha Nair #dika
14. Mankai: The Super Small Superfood
15. Moringa oleifera: Domestication Histories and Emerging Deviations from Indian Origin The superfood, Moringa oleifera, has a rich history deeply rooted in its native Indian domestication and usage. Also widely known as “The Miracle Tree”, M. oleifera is often recognized by its white flowers and long-seed pods that are greatly sought after. Not only does M. oleifera provide an incomparable food source and multipurpose oil through its pods, but all parts of the plant may be used and consumed. The versatility of this plant is venerated in Indian culture where its consumption and, most importantly, medicinal usage involve all parts of the plant. Due to its spread across other countries, the species and its utilization have evolved to suit individual cultures and their own domestication desires. In the Philippines and North and South Africa, its nutritional value is greatly relied upon to treat malnourishment, purify water, and support community infrastructure while the Indian native medicinal usage is less emphasized and not well known. The Americas, on the other hand, have increasingly toyed with the novel M. oleifera ‘organic-superfood’ craze that tends to remove emphasis from its cultural value and multipurpose utilization to instead fawn over its supposed energy boosts, skin care implementations, and uses in its powder – likely less effective and increasingly more expensive than the original. Though its original purpose grows increasingly colonized, the domestication ventures globally of this superfood continue the legacy of the Moringa oleifera species itself – marked genetic increases in energy production associated with plastic to nucleus gene duplications. As each nation tends to and selects for various aspects of this energy contribution – whether for the nutritional, medicinal, or vanity value – the variation in these M. oleifera may grow towards eventual speciation. By George Vetushko and Lauren Guevara #drumsticktree
16. Sacha inchi: Super Seeds
17. Breadfruit: The Intrepid Fruit's Journey with Indigenous Peoples and Colonization Breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) is an intrepid dicot with a rich history and culture surrounding it. A. altilis originated from the South Pacific and was later spread throughout Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia by voyagers. Later on, breadfruit’s ease of maintenance and nutritional value made it a prime crop, in the eyes of colonizers, to feed African slaves in the Caribbean. Today, breadfruit continues to have an important role in sustainability, fighting malnutrition, and increasing food security. By Author Names
18. Smallanthus sonchifolius: The Superfood of the Andes
19. The Wonder Berry : Phyllanthus emblica
20. Açaí Berry: The Exploitation of Labor in South America The açaí berry is a small fruit, similar in size to a blueberry but deeper purple in color. Native to Eastern Amazonia, the açaí berry has only recently begun to be popularized as a “superfood” in urban communities in the United States within the past 20 years. This superfood claims to be helpful for a variety of major health concerns including, but not limited to, arthritis, weight loss, high cholesterol, and detoxification (NCCIH). Even though research is limited and these claims remain unproven, the popularity of açaí berries still manages to grow exponentially each year. The global market for the açaí berry is expected to exceed $2 billion by 2026 (McCoy). The only proven claim than can be made about the açaí berry is that its rise in popularity only serves to threaten the lives of families, both adults and children, that are living in the surrounding communities in the Amazon who are responsible for harvesting the berries and are, in turn, routinely exploited for cheap, quick labor. More often than not, these açaí pickers, known as peconheiros, are forced to work in critically dangerous conditions and are paid little to nothing. Peconheiros are regularly exposed to serious injuries including bone fractures, accidental knife wounds, and venomous snake and spider bites. With the açaí trees growing upwards of 50 feet tall and only a braided rope being provided to climb, falls are common– and sometimes fatal. Further, peconheiros have no way of advocating for themselves in the event that they do become injured in the forest. No laws or regulations exist that protect the safety and wellness of the peconheiros. by Roberto Vindel, Pauline Le, and Max Kwon #Açaí
21. Tiger Nuts: Cultivar, Weed, and the Plasticity of Plant-People Relationships
22. Ulluco: Cultivation Consequences on Reproduction
23. Lorem Ipsum: The Fake Latin Text Substitute Elementum facilisis leo vel fringilla est ullamcorper eget nulla facilisi etiam dignissim diam quis enim lobortis scelerisque fermentum dui faucibus in ornare quam viverra orci sagittis eu volutpat odio facilisis mauris sit amet massa vitae tortor condimentum lacinia quis vel eros donec ac odio tempor orci dapibus ultrices in iaculis nunc sed augue lacus viverra vitae congue eu consequat ac felis donec et odio pellentesque diam volutpat commodo sed egestas egestas fringilla phasellus faucibus scelerisque eleifend donec pretium vulputate sapien nec sagittis aliquam malesuada bibendum arcu vitae elementum curabitur vitae nunc sed velit dignissim sodales ut eu sem integer vitae justo eget magna fermentum iaculis eu non diam phasellus vestibulum lorem sed risus ultricies tristique nulla aliquet enim tortor at auctor urna nunc id cursus metus aliquam eleifend mi in nulla posuere sollicitudin aliquam ultrices sagittis orci a scelerisque purus semper eget duis at tellus at urna condimentum mattis pellentesque id nibh tortor id aliquet lectus proin nibh nisl condimentum id venenatis a condimentum vitae sapien pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas sed tempus urna et pharetra pharetra massa massa ultricies mi quis hendrerit dolor magna eget est lorem ipsum dolor sit amet consectetur adipiscing elit pellentesque habitant morbi tristique senectus et netus et malesuada fames ac turpis egestas integer eget aliquet nibh praesent tristique magna sit amet purus gravida quis blandit turpis cursus in hac habitasse platea dictumst quisque sagittis purus sit amet volutpat consequat mauris nunc congue nisi vitae suscipit tellus. By Lorem Ipsum #lorem #ipsum

This page references:

Flower Morphology of Lycium chinense
Chinese Materia Dietetica, Ming: Alcoholic beverages #Goji These paintings illustrate mulberry liquor and Chinese wolfberry (gouqi, lycium chinense) liquor. The text states: Mulberry liquor tonifies the five viscera, tonifies the five viscera, and increases the acuity of the ears and eyes. Chinese wolfberry liquor is a tonic for insufficiency detriment/consumption (xusun), gets rid of overexertion heat (laore), lengthens the muscles,improves the looks, makes one sturdy, and relieves liver deficiency and tearfulness.
Vegetative Morphology
Goji Berry Vine