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Asia-Pacific in the Making of the Americas: Toward a Global History

Clergy and Tradesmen, 1596

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2. Hennepin's Nouvelle France, 1783 Louis Hennepin, 1783. Map of North America and the northern part of South America from New France to New Spain. Cartographic elements include Indian settlements, the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River, part of the Mississippi River, locations of missions and forts, sea banks or shoals, and lines of latitude and longitude. Decorative cartouche includes allegorical figures. An angel holding a shield with a cross smites a fallen man who holds snakes. At right, a redeemed man and woman rise up toward cross and the triumph of Louisiana. One female figure holds the royal French coat of arms, another holds a banner with "Louis." John Carter Brown Library
3. Indias Ocidentales, 1601 (1575) "Descripcion de las Yndias del occidentals." Madrid, 1601, in Historia general de los hechos de los castellanos en las islas i Tierra Firme del Mar Oceano escrita por Antonio de Herrera coronista mayor de Su Md: de las Indias y su coronista de Castilla ... Decada primera" Map of the western hemisphere with the northwestern part of North America unfinished and showing part of western Iberian pennisula and Africa, part of China, Japan, part of New Guinea, and some of the Solomon islands. Includes the Line of Demarkation. Only four known surviving examples.
5. Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas — Sangley Details Detail of Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734), by Pedro Murillo Velarde. The Philippines was a vital part of the Spanish Empire, and the map shows the maritime routes from Manila to Spain and to New Spain. There are twelve engravings on the sides depicting different ethnic groups living in the archipelago and cartographic descriptions of particular cities or islands. From the National Library of Spain.
6. Merchants Eating In a Boat
8. Sangley Rebellion "Rare first edition of an important relation describing the 1639-40 revolt of ethnic Chinese Filipinos (Sangleyes) against Spanish colonial powers at the port of Calamba, located some 55 kilometers south of Manila. This organized conspiracy, sometimes called the Second Chinese Insurrection (the first Sangley rebellion occurred in 1603), had been coordinated to begin on Christmas Eve of 1639: Sangley insurgents (some 45,000 Sangleys lived in and around Manila at the time) corresponded with a Chinese pirate named Yquan Sanglus, agreeing that he should surprise the Spanish colonists and capture their galleons arriving from New Spain. Governor Sebastián Hurtado de Corcuera’s (d. 1660) soldiers, supported by two companies of Sangley mestizos, one company of Japanese troops and additional fighters from among the indigenous and free black population, easily put down the revolt during January and February of 1640. The present document is rich with details and records that 5 million pesos worth of damage had been done in the rebellion, that the Spanish sank 11 of 20 Sangley ships, killed 650 Sangley sailors in the initial skirmish and several thousand infantrymen in the weeks that followed. Sangley prisoners questioned by the Spaniards confessed that their leader had offered large rewards, including a Spanish woman as a wife, to any who should bring him a Spanish head. A total of 7783 Sangley fighters surrendered to colonial authorities on 24 February 1640, the peace largely brokered by Jesuits and Augustinians, some of whom had themselves participated in the battle. "
11. Francisco Felipe Faxicura Hasekura Rokuemon Tsunenaga was baptized as Francisco Felipe Faxicura on February 17, 1615 in Spain by King Philip III's personal chaplain. Shown in the top right is Hasekura's coat of arms: a crowned shield depicting a Buddhist swastika overlapping two intersecting arrows on an orange background. His coat of arms is seen in various places, including on his ship, San Juan Bautista. This image found in a German translation of: Historia del regno di Voxu del Giapone, first published Rome, 1615, found in the John Carter Brown Library or online at https://archive.org/details/relationvndgrndt00amat .
15. The Life of St. Francis Xavier : Apostle of the Indies and Japan by Daniello Bartoli, 1608-1685. Bartoli, a 17th century Italian Jesuit writer, zealously describes St. Francis Xavier's travels to the Indies and Japan on galleons on a mission to convert foreigners to Catholicism. A description of St.Francis Xavier's 1549 voyage to Japan begins on page 326, Book the Third. Here, Bartoli refers to letters sent by St.Francis while in Japan and his ultimately successful efforts to spread Catholicism there. Bartoli writes on the saint's humility, skill with learning foreign languages (a skill he attributes to God) and the positive responses he received while preaching christianity. Translation of his Vita di S. Francesco Saverio della Compagnia di Gesù apostolo delle Indie.
16. 1634 Japanese Red Seal Ship As the Japanese increasingly ventured on voyages for trading purposes nearing the seventeenth century, Red Seal ships became more common. Red Seal ships were military merchant sailing ships that were armed and carried red-sealed permits from Tokugawa Ieyasu, the Japanese ruler of the time. The seals allowed for a controlled system of foreign trade as well as protection against pirates. Tokyo Naval Science Museum.
19. Signature of Luis de Encio
20. 1618 Chinese Map of the Philippines Dong Xi yang kao 東西洋考 (On the eastern and western oceans), 1618, by Zhang Xie 張燮, 1574-1640. "...is the most comprehensive Ming description of the countries of Southeast Asia." ( Wilkinson, Chinese History, a Manual, p. 747. "...a maritime geography of south Asia...deals with the history, topography, products, and trade of the lands of southeast Asia, including the Philippines, the Moluccas, Brunei (on the north coast of Borneo), ...Indo-China, Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, Java, southwest coast of Borneo, a total of thirty-eight countries; discusses China's relations with Japan and the Dutch 紅毛番 ...revenue, navigation (with compass directions and distances and rhymed rules for weather prediction), and to a certain eunuch revenue collector Gao Cai, who exacted tribute from merchants...until his recall to Peking in 1615....documents and official communications between the Chinese court and various countries including Japan" -- Cf. Dictionary of Ming Biography: 77-78 (courtesy of The Ricci Institute Library). Nineteenth-century Chinese facsimile of the first edition from Brown University Libraries, The Gardner Collection.
23. Large Map of Asia "This... map embraces all of Asia. The Middle East is very well formed, although the Caspian Sea has the egg-like form it maintained on maps until the 1730s. The Arabian Peninsula is well defined, based on Portuguese sources, and India takes its form after the maps of the Dutch adventurer, Jan Hugyen van Linschoten (1596), which, in turn, borrowed from Portuguese sources. Southeast Asia and the Indonesian Archipelago are derived from charts made for the Dutch East India Company (the VOC), while China is derived from Jesuit sources, although Korea is an oddly elongated peninsula. The geography of the region would remain an enigma to Europeans until the early 18th Century. Japan's Honshu and Kyushu are recognizable, although the area further to the northeast remains a vast mystery. True to the ‘Carte à Figures’ style, which was the hallmark of the great contemporary period of Dutch Baroque cartography, the map is surrounded on three sides by registers of fine vignettes. Along the top of the map are views of Farmagusta (Cyprus), Rhodes (Greece), Damascus, Jerusalem, Aden and Hormuz (Persia). Along the left side of the map are depictions of people in local costume including Syrians, Arabs, Armenians & Persians, Indians, and Sumatrans. On the left side are depictions that include Javanese, Moluccans & Bandans, Chinese, Russians and Tartars. The map is further embellished by a fine title cartouche and ships and sea monsters in the seas. The map was originally conceived by Jodocus Hondius the Younger, as a part of an exceedingly rare Appendix to the Hondius-Mercator Atlas (1630), of which this edition included an extra panel of text at the bottom. The present edition was issued by Hondius’s brother-in-law, Jan Jansson, as part of Atlas Novus (1638). The Jansson edition is distinguishable by the appearance of Jansson’s imprint, within a cartouche, to the upper right, and the removal of the bottom text panel, which was considered to be too cumbersome for inclusion in a folio atlas. The map was originally conceived by Jodocus Hondius the Younger (1594-1629), whose eponymous father played a large part in the rise of Amsterdam as the dominant cartographic production center in the 17th Century. The present edition of the map is by Jan Jansson (1588-1664), who married Jodocus the Younger’s sister Elizabeth. He transformed the Hondius firm into a powerhouse of geographical publications. Jansson most notably published the Atlas Novus (1638), and the Atlas Major (1660), the 11 volumes of which included a town atlas, a hydrographic atlas, an atlas of the ancient world, and Andreas Cellarius’s incomparable celestial atlas. Jansson’s works were rivaled only by those of his arch-nemesis Joan Blaeu. The present map is one of the finest depictions of Asia from the apogee of Dutch cartography. It is also scarce, appearing on the market infrequently." From The Barry Ruderman Antique Maps, co.
27. Ships Near Port
28. Image of a Port
30. Chinese Merchants
32. Image of Ships on the Pacific Ocean
33. Port in Acapulco "The beautiful " birds- eye- view" of Mexico City by Juan Gómez de Trasmonte is extremely well -known as almost the only surviving representation of the city in the seventeenth -century . The origin , intentions and history of esta map are , however , less well- known. In fact , classical texts on the subject are inaccurate or incomplete mostly . Incorporating new cartobibliographic evidence , this article reinterprets Trasmonte 's plan from the point of view of four methodological statements : i ) The map is the territory . ii ) The map is not the territory . iii ) Territories are maps and iv ) The maps is the map . Hopefully , This analysis Contributes some innovative methodological principles for studying historical urban cartography ." From "The map is the City?. A new look at the bird's eye view of Mexico City in 1628 by Juan Gómez de Trasmonte"
34. The Pacific Ocean with Flying Fish
35. Descripcion de las Yndias del Ocidentales by Antonio de Herrera y Tordesillas
36. The Parían Market, from Itinerario
37. Linschoten's Map of the World
38. Manila Bay, 1685
39. Chinese Merchants
40. Planta de las Islas Filipinas, 1699
42. Historia general, 1601
43. The San Juan Bautista Originally owned by Date Masamune, an influential feudal lord in the Tokugawa court, the San Juan Bautista carried Hasekura Tsunenaga Rokuyemon, a samurai who led Masamune’s embassy to Spain and Italy, and Sebastián Vizcaíno, a Mexican diplomat. Vizcaíno was demoted to a simple passenger on the San Juan Bautista as Haskeura’s embassy sailed the ocean. A replica of the ship is shown here and found in Ishinomaki, Japan.
44. Schurman Commission Document, 1900 The Schurman Commission, also known as the First Philippine Commission, was formed by President William McKinley on January 20, 1899. The commission was tasked with studying the political climate of the country and make policy recommendations. While the report acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence, the commission reported that the country was not ready for self-governance. From the University of Michigan Library.
45. Conquest of the Philippines, 1698
47. Map depicting the bay of Acapulco in 1632, detailing Japanese ship Spanish captain Nicolás de Cardona sailed to Acapulco in 1614, the same year as Hasekura. He draws his then surroundings on the map and supplies a legend in his 1632 book, "Descripciones geográphicas e hydrográphicas de muchas tierras y mares del Norte y Sur en las Indias, en especial del descubrimiento del Reino de la California,"or "Geographic and hydrographic descriptions of many northern and southern lands and seas in the Indies, specifically the discovery of the kingdom of California.” The book is written in 1632, but the drawings on the map represent Cardona's catalogue of his surroundings during his 1614 expedition. He depicts a Japanese ship on the bay of Acapulco, believed to be the San Juan Bautista. Takashi Gonoi explains this likeliness in page 53 of "Hasekura Tsunenaga" 支倉常長, Yoshikawa Kōbunkan, 2003.
48. Wong Kim Ark’s Departure Statement, 1894
49. Potosi Forma de los ingenios enquese muelen los metales de plata en la Ribera de Potosi el vno de dos Cabeças yelostro de una. Arzáns de Orsúa y Vela, Bartolomé, 1676-1736 (creator); leaf 91 from Historia de la villa imperial de Potosí by Bartholome Arzans de Orzua y Vela. This is a detailed manuscript account, published by Brown University in 1965, of “that mining center where the wealth and poverty, avarice and generosity, religiosity and bitter hatreds, cruelty and intrigues all flourished” (John Phelan, The Hispanic Historical Review 47:4, Nov. 1967).
51. Ships Near Port
54. Juan Correa, "St. Francis Xavier Baptizing" c. 1700
55. Guadalajara Cathedral
56. Parían Market " Market Manila, called the Parian . Juan Francisco de Ravenet and Bunel . Collection of drawings and prints of the Malaspina Expedition 1789-1794 . MN This is the only known drawing of Chinatown Manila, shortly before its demolition was ordered . Many of the characters depicted were the subject of a portrait by the same artist. " Known Drawing, 1521 1898 , Little Manila , Philippines 1521 , Single Drawing, Drawings , Spanish Philippines , Manila , Manila Call
60. Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas — Mestizo Details Detail of Carta Hydrographica y Chorographica de las Yslas Filipinas (1734), by Pedro Murillo Velarde. The Philippines was a vital part of the Spanish Empire, and the map shows the maritime routes from Manila to Spain and to New Spain. There are twelve engravings on the sides depicting different ethnic groups living in the archipelago and cartographic descriptions of particular cities or islands. From the National Library of Spain

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Manila’s Parián Market
After noting that Spain established her relationship with the Philippines “a través de una de sus colonias americanas, la Nueva España” (through one of its American colonies, New Spain), Mexican historian Carmen Yuste López characterized this relationship as “un comercio intercolonial” (inter-colonial commerce) (Yuste 1984, p. 10). The eminent historian of the Manila Galleon, William Schurz, offered a subtle but significant distinction in characterizing the relationship this way: “A Spanish Orient might be made an adjunct of Spanish America.” (Schurz, p. 21; italics added) In this sense, Manila and Las Filipinas in the Asia-Pacific can be seen as an extension of Mexico and America, rather than sharing co-equal status as Spanish colonies.
From inception, Spaniards decided on a policy of not developing any Spanish settler society in Asia, certainly not in Manila, much different from what they did in Mexico or Peru, the other silver-producing colony in South America. Instead, they tapped into and maximized the use of Chinese trading networks through the vast Nanyang (Southeast Asia) and Indian Ocean worlds. This policy, which was similar to that adopted by the Portuguese and later the Dutch in Southeast Asia, further spurred the rise of large and prosperous overseas Chinese communities in many parts of the Malay and Filipino archipelagos and the Indochina coasts, starting with Manila. In effect, Manila was no more than an entrepôt or a “way station” (Schurz p. 26) for trade with China, sometimes imagined by Spaniards as a beachhead for the eventual spiritual and political conquest of China, which never came to pass. In this way, Manila was an extension of Mexico. The permanent Chinese community that took shape should rightfully take its place as America’s first Chinatown. To examine closely the nature of this first America Chinatown is the central focus of this paper.
The Chinese population in Manila swelled from a handful--about 150--at moment of first contact in 1564 to some 10,000 in 1586, rising to some 25,000 in another ten years. Almost all—up to 85 percent--were the Hokkien people from Minnan (southern Fujian province), with a small number from Guangdong province to the south; these Cantonese-speaking Chinese were also experienced long distance junk traders operating from their cosmopolitan port of Canton. (Ang See 1977, p. 106).
First impressions were mixed. Judge Antonio de Morga, who spent years in Manila closely observing the Chinese, said: “Son gente blanca, altos de cuerpo, poca barba, muy fornidos de miembros, y de muchas fuerças, grandes trabajadores, e ingeniosos en todas artes y oficios… “ They are white people, with lofty bodies, trim beards, very stocky limbs with a lot of strength, great workers, and geniuses in all arts and trades…” They went about unarmed, dressed in their own loose style of clothing made of black and colored silk, which he described with obvious fascination:
“… ropas largas, con mangas anchas, de cangán azul o blanco por luto; y los principals, de sedas negras y de colores, calçones anchos de los mismo, media calças de fieltro, mui anchas çapatos a su usança, de seda azul, bordados de cordonçillo, con muchas suelasbien cosidas, y de otras telas, el cabello largo, muy negro y curado, y rebuelto a la cabeça, con una lazada alta, un capillejo o escofia encima, de cerdas de cavallo, muy justa, hasa la mitad de la frente, y bonete alto, redondo, de la mismas cerdas sore todo, de diferentes hechurs, en que se diferencias los oficios, y calidad de cada uno.”

Translation
“...long robes, with wide sleeves, of cangán blue or white for mourning; and the main, of black silk and of colors, calcones wide for themselves, bordered with grey felt, very wide shoes as is their custom, of blue silk, embroidered soutaches, with a lot of sewn leather, and other fabrics, long hair, very black and tough, and twisted on the head in a high loop, a little bonnet o cap on top, over bristled hair, very fair, it had been on the middle of the forehead, a tall hat, round, the same bristles as everything else, of different stitching, in which the I know differences of trades and quality of each one.”

The Christian Chinese dressed the same, except with their hair short. But then he also quickly added, betraying the fear and mistrust that was already apparent, that the “sangleyes” (the Philippine Chinese) were “flemáticos, jente de poco ánimo, traydores y crueles, quando ven la suya, y muy codiciosos…” (Morga, p. 320-21)
“Phlegmatic, feeble minded people, treacherous and cruel, and very greedy, when they see what you have…”
This population was predominately male, a major issue for the Spaniards, especially the missionaries who began proselytizing among them from the beginning. Dominican friars founded the town of Binondo (next to the Filipino neighborhood called Tondo where Chinese also resided) on the east side of the Pasig River outside the city walls (Extramuros). There, they encouraged Christianized Chinese men to take Filipina wives and settle down, building a church and a hospital to serve them. By the early seventeenth century, it had about five hundred residents. Later in the eighteenth century, Jesuit missionaries would build another quarter, Santa Cruz, for the Chinese they converted and married. (Schurz, pp. 79-83; Wickberg, pp. 11-19; Morga, p. 320) Bishop Salazar of the Dominican order submitted a fairly detailed report to the Emperor about Dominican missionary activities among the sangley and about the Chinese Christians of Binondo and Tondo, and wherever the Chinese lived. (Salazar)
At first, most of the Chinese lived scattered among Spaniards in the city (Intramuros, within city walls), and made themselves useful. Only ten years after arrival, in 1574, the Spanish Governor noted the continuous flow of Chinese to “supply us with many articles, such as sugar, wheat and barley flour, nuts, raisins, pears and oranges, silks, wine, porcelain and iron, and other small things which we lacked in the land before their arrival.” (cited in Guerrero, p. 21) No wonder: already by 1573, two galleons carried to Acapulco a great volume and rich variety of Chinese goods brought to Manila by the Hokkien traders: 712 pieces of Chinese silk and 22,300 pieces of “ ‘fine gilt china and other porcelain ware’,” (Schurz, p. 27) giving a preview of better and more to come in future galleons.
Manila’s Parián Market
After noting that Spain established her relationship with the Philippines “a través de una de sus colonias americanas, la Nueva España” (through one of its American colonies, New Spain), Mexican historian Carmen Yuste López characterized this relationship as “un comercio intercolonial” (inter-colonial commerce) (Yuste 1984, p. 10). The eminent historian of the Manila Galleon, William Schurz, offered a subtle but significant distinction in characterizing the relationship this way: “A Spanish Orient might be made an adjunct of Spanish America.” (Schurz, p. 21; italics added) In this sense, Manila and Las Filipinas in the Asia-Pacific can be seen as an extension of Mexico and America, rather than sharing co-equal status as Spanish colonies.
From inception, Spaniards decided on a policy of not developing any Spanish settler society in Asia, certainly not in Manila, much different from what they did in Mexico or Peru, the other silver-producing colony in South America. Instead, they tapped into and maximized the use of Chinese trading networks through the vast Nanyang (Southeast Asia) and Indian Ocean worlds. This policy, which was similar to that adopted by the Portuguese and later the Dutch in Southeast Asia, further spurred the rise of large and prosperous overseas Chinese communities in many parts of the Malay and Filipino archipelagos and the Indochina coasts, starting with Manila. In effect, Manila was no more than an entrepôt or a “way station” (Schurz p. 26) for trade with China, sometimes imagined by Spaniards as a beachhead for the eventual spiritual and political conquest of China, which never came to pass. In this way, Manila was an extension of Mexico. The permanent Chinese community that took shape should rightfully take its place as America’s first Chinatown. To examine closely the nature of this first America Chinatown is the central focus of this paper.
The Chinese population in Manila swelled from a handful--about 150--at moment of first contact in 1564 to some 10,000 in 1586, rising to some 25,000 in another ten years. Almost all—up to 85 percent--were the Hokkien people from Minnan (southern Fujian province), with a small number from Guangdong province to the south; these Cantonese-speaking Chinese were also experienced long distance junk traders operating from their cosmopolitan port of Canton. (Ang See 1977, p. 106).
First impressions were mixed. Judge Antonio de Morga, who spent years in Manila closely observing the Chinese, said: “Son gente blanca, altos de cuerpo, poca barba, muy fornidos de miembros, y de muchas fuerças, grandes trabajadores, e ingeniosos en todas artes y oficios… “ They are white people, with lofty bodies, trim beards, very stocky limbs with a lot of strength, great workers, and geniuses in all arts and trades…”
They went about unarmed, dressed in their own loose style of clothing made of black and colored silk, which he described with obvious fascination:
“… ropas largas, con mangas anchas, de cangán azul o blanco por luto; y los principals, de sedas negras y de colores, calçones anchos de los mismo, media calças de fieltro, mui anchas çapatos a su usança, de seda azul, bordados de cordonçillo, con muchas suelasbien cosidas, y de otras telas, el cabello largo, muy negro y curado, y rebuelto a la cabeça, con una lazada alta, un capillejo o escofia encima, de cerdas de cavallo, muy justa, hasa la mitad de la frente, y bonete alto, redondo, de la mismas cerdas sore todo, de diferentes hechurs, en que se diferencias los oficios, y calidad de cada uno.”

Translation
“...long robes, with wide sleeves, of cangán blue or white for mourning; and the main, of black silk and of colors, calcones wide for themselves, bordered with grey felt, very wide shoes as is their custom, of blue silk, embroidered soutaches, with a lot of sewn leather, and other fabrics, long hair, very black and tough, and twisted on the head in a high loop, a little bonnet o cap on top, over bristled hair, very fair, it had been on the middle of the forehead, a tall hat, round, the same bristles as everything else, of different stitching, in which the I know differences of trades and quality of each one.”

The Christian Chinese dressed the same, except with their hair short. But then he also quickly added, betraying the fear and mistrust that was already apparent, that the “sangleyes” (the Philippine Chinese) were “flemáticos, jente de poco ánimo, traydores y crueles, quando ven la suya, y muy codiciosos…” (Morga, p. 320-21)
“Phlegmatic, feeble minded people, treacherous and cruel, and very greedy, when they see what you have…”

This population was predominately male, a major issue for the Spaniards, especially the missionaries who began proselytizing among them from the beginning. Dominican friars founded the town of Binondo (next to the Filipino neighborhood called Tondo where Chinese also resided) on the east side of the Pasig River outside the city walls (Extramuros). There, they encouraged Christianized Chinese men to take Filipina wives and settle down, building a church and a hospital to serve them. By the early seventeenth century, it had about five hundred residents. Later in the eighteenth century, Jesuit missionaries would build another quarter, Santa Cruz, for the Chinese they converted and married. (Schurz, pp. 79-83; Wickberg, pp. 11-19; Morga, p. 320) Bishop Salazar of the Dominican order submitted a fairly detailed report to the Emperor about Dominican missionary activities among the sangley and about the Chinese Christians of Binondo and Tondo, and wherever the Chinese lived. (Salazar)
At first, most of the Chinese lived scattered among Spaniards in the city (Intramuros, within city walls), and made themselves useful. Only ten years after arrival, in 1574, the Spanish Governor noted the continuous flow of Chinese to

“supply us with many articles, such as sugar, wheat and barley flour, nuts, raisins, pears and oranges, silks, wine, porcelain and iron, and other small things which we lacked in the land before their arrival.” (cited in Guerrero, p. 21) No wonder: already by 1573, two galleons carried to Acapulco a great volume and rich variety of Chinese goods brought to Manila by the Hokkien traders: 712 pieces of Chinese silk and 22,300 pieces of “ ‘fine gilt china and other porcelain ware’,” (Schurz, p. 27) giving a preview of better and more to come in future galleons.