Introduction
"Tristezas" (1883)“the bolero constitutes, without a doubt, the first vocal style of Cuban music that, once it transcended national boundaries reached a “universal permanence.”[2]
"Bolero is the quintessential Latin American love song. Between 1930 and 1960 bolero was ubiquitous in each and every Spanish-speaking country - a claim no other Latin American genre can make."[1]
A transnational phenomenon from nearly its beginnings, the bolero is a curious example of romantic, nostalgic sentimental affect found in much Latin American music. Regardless of where it is being performed, or in what time period, the music carries an aura of nostalgia for a perfect moment that never existed.
The bolero began in Cuba at the end of the 19th century, with Pepe Sanchez’s “Tristezas” generally accepted as the first instance.[3] According to the Cuban scholar, Helio Orovio, the bolero’s stylistic features[4]
include:
- Danceable and sing-able music with two sixteen bar sections separated by an instrumental break with improvisation on the high strings of the guitar
- Major or minor, or changing between the two
He continues:
Of later iterations of the bolero he says:Traditional bolero is a total fusion of Hispanic and Afro-Cuban elements, which appear in the accompanying guitar melody, where the percussive accents of the cinquillo impose themselves on the words of the literary text, in 2/4 time.[5]
The song, “Aquellos Ojos Verdes” is a 1929 Cuban bolero. The year of the song’s publication lines up with similar developments in Mexico. This suggests that the move toward a focus on poetry was not necessarily a nation-specific change, but rather a sign of the times. In fact, Cuban composers like Villalón were already setting poetry to music as early as 1919, with “Boda Negra.”Educated composers, pianists, alter the figure of the cinquillo, inserting the left-hand accompaniment of the piano, creating melodic and harmonic embelishments. Gradually, they begin setting the texts of well-known poets to music. Such was the case with “Aquellos Ojos Verdes,” with lyrics by Adolfo Utrera, and music by Nilo Menendez, a bolero that quickly achieved universal popularity. Already, in this composition the verses impose their prosodic rhythm and the hegemonic tradition of the cinquillo recedes.
Still, one must acknowledge the cultural differences between Cuba and Mexico, not the least of which is the racial and ethnic makeup of the two countries, with the latter having relatively little African influence and presence. When coupled with differences of culture, economics, social organization and histories, it is inevitable that a music must change when it is embraced by a different population, regardless of the multitude of similarities and shared histories between the two. Some scholars, such as Franco in her article on “the bolero’s transculturation” from Cuba to Mexico claims that the disappearance of the cinquillo was due to this process.[6]
Significantly, Orovio refutes the implication that the bolero might belong to any other country, stating:
The question of cultural ‘ownership’ of a music is a complicated one, and beyond the scope of this project. However, I bring this up to show that it is a point of tension (particularly between Cuban and Mexican scholars, musicians, and listeners). I am focusing on the bolero as a transnational genre. I trace its movement into Mexico because it is a site where, due to a series of factors, it became a hemispheric and even global music. Thus, I am contesting the idea that the bolero is statically Mexican or Cuban. Rather, I posit that it is a genre that has its roots firmly in Oriente, but has evolved through the years through the contributions of Cubans, Mexicans, estadounidenses, Puerto Ricans, and others. My focus remains on Mexico and Cuba because they were formative sites.The bolero continued to develop, to evolve, but even when interpreted by instrumental groups, it never loses it character. The percussionist adapts and adds the frame necessary for its most complete expression. Thus we can affirm that the evolution suffered by the bolero belongs plainly to our country and not to other countries as it has sometimes been implied.
Even Orovio acknowledges the transnational development of the genre:
Nevertheless, the international triumph of the bolero has resulted in the contributions of very important composers. Such is the case with the creative genius, Agustín Lara, who added his personal melodic-poetic stamp.[7]
This project will feature significant songs in the history of the bolero, which showcase its development as it moved from Cuba into Mexico and became a popular, mass-mediated music. We will consider this development in three phases:
1. The Birth of the Bolero in Santiago de Cuba
2. The Arrival of Bolero in the Yucatan
3. The Bolero's Popularization in Mexico
Songs will be selected from these. The pages will include links to audio recordings and videos of different recordings and provide commentary on each song. This is a very small selection of a very large repertoire, intended only to show key developments and shifts in the genre.
This page has paths:
- Introduction Jeannelle Ramirez
- The Bolero Jeannelle Ramirez