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Archaeology of a Book: An experimental approach to reading rare books in archival contexts

British Bible Society: Nahuatl Passage

Page from the British and American Bible Society’s Columbian Exposition pamphlet includes bible passages translated into Muskokee, Cherokee, Delaware, Nez Perces, Mayan, and "Mexican, or Aztec.” Aztec text reads “237. Mexican, or Aztec. Ni mehuaz yhuan ni az campa câ in no tâtzin yhuan nic ilhuiz: No tâtzin é, oni tlâtlacô ihuicopa in ilhuicatl yhuan mix pan têhuatl. - (Luke xv. 18.). Facsimile from Archive.org, document held by the Princeton Theological Seminary Library

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1. British Bible Society: Nahuatl Passage Page from the British and American Bible Society’s Columbian Exposition pamphlet includes bible passages translated into Muskokee, Cherokee, Delaware, Nez Perces, Mayan, and "Mexican, or Aztec.” Aztec text reads “237. Mexican, or Aztec. Ni mehuaz yhuan ni az campa câ in no tâtzin yhuan nic ilhuiz: No tâtzin é, oni tlâtlacô ihuicopa in ilhuicatl yhuan mix pan têhuatl. - (Luke xv. 18.). Facsimile from Archive.org, document held by the Princeton Theological Seminary Library

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1. Additional title page for the Advertencias, Volume Two Additional title page of volume two of the Advertencias features an unusual shield. /Text reads “Advertencias. Para los confessores de los Naturales. ¶Compuestas por el padre Fray Ioan Baptista, de la Orden del Seraphico Padre Sanct Francisco, Lector de Theologia, y Guardian del Convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco: de la Provincia del Sancto Evangelio. Primera Parte. [This is followed by an image in a rectangular frame. Within the frame is a second, oval frame decorated with scrolls. Within this internal frame is a cross with protrusions perched on a heart pierced by arrows.] Con Privilegio. ¶En Mexico, En el convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco, Por M. Ocharte. año 1600. / Image represents an exemplar held at the Benson Latin American Collection, Austin, Texas
2. Confessionario breve, en lengua mexicana y castellana Title page: Confessionario breve, en lengua Mexicana y Castellana by Alonso de Molina, printed by Antonio de Espinosa (1565). Printed in red and black, in blackletter. Title on top reads "Confessionario breve, en lengua Mexicana y Castellana: compuesto por el muy reverendo padre fray Alonso de Molina, de la orden del seraphico padre Sant Francisco." Text on bottom reads "En Mexico en casa de Antonio de Espinosa, Imprsr. / 1565". In between is a large square frame that fills most of the page. Text around outside edge in red. Interior shows a a floral wreath and the Franciscan emblem: a shield with five bleeding wounds. From an exemplar held by the John Carter Brown Library in Providence, Rhode Island.
3. Antonio Ricardo's Sermonario (1577). Title page of a Sermonario printed by Antonio Ricardo, in multiple font sizes, roman and italic. Title text reads "Sermonario [cut off in image] en lengua mexicana, donde se contiene (por el orden del missal nuevo romano,) dos sermones en todas las Dominicas y Festividades principales de todo el año: y otro en las Fiestas de los Sanctos, con sus vidas, y Comunes. Con un cathecismo en lengua mexicana y Española, con el Calendario. Compuesto por el reverendo padre Fray Iuan de la Anuniacion, Subprior del monasterio de Sant Augustin de Mexico. [Follow image shows a religious figure holding a building in the right hand and an open book in the left, arms outstretched in the shape of a cross, with praying figures kneeling behind him.] Dirigido al muy reverendo padre maestro fray Alonso de la vera cruz, Prouinicial de la orden de los Hermitaños de sant Augustin, en esta nueva España. En mexico, por Antonio Ricardo. M.D.LXXVII. Esta tassado en papel en [blank] pesos.
5. Automatic Transcription Output with Ocular Three versions of the same fragment from the Advertencias: one is a facsimile image of the original page; one is a facsimile image in black in white with language changes marked in red; the final is an automatic transcription of the original page, with language shifts automatically generated. Transcription labels languages correctly on all but one word, and shows few character errors, though it does insert extra spaces in the Nahuatl text. Text reads: “Ay proprio vocablo de logro, que es, tetech-tlaixtlapanaliztli, tetechtlamieccaquixtiliztli, ypara dezir diste alogro? Cuix tetech otitlaix”.
6. Bible Society Manuscript Note
7. Biblioteca Burgoa
8. Bilingual Catechism in the Advertencias
11. British Bible Society: Nahuatl Passage Page from the British and American Bible Society’s Columbian Exposition pamphlet includes bible passages translated into Muskokee, Cherokee, Delaware, Nez Perces, Mayan, and "Mexican, or Aztec.” Aztec text reads “237. Mexican, or Aztec. Ni mehuaz yhuan ni az campa câ in no tâtzin yhuan nic ilhuiz: No tâtzin é, oni tlâtlacô ihuicopa in ilhuicatl yhuan mix pan têhuatl. - (Luke xv. 18.). Facsimile from Archive.org, document held by the Princeton Theological Seminary Library
13. Challenges for Automatic Transcription
14. Cobre Reader comparing frontmatter of the Advertencias
15. Colophon of the Advertencias (Segunda Parte) The final page of volume two of the Advertencias, from a copy held by the Benson Latin American Collection, Austin, TX. Text is in roman font and divided in three parts, each separated on the page. Third part is the colophon, which reads: Excudebat Ludouicus Ocharte Figueroa, Mexici, in Regio Collegio sancte Crucis, sancti Iacobi de Tlati lulco. Anno Domini 1601. Image is from the copy held by the Benson Latin American Collection in Austin, Texas.
16. Corrected Index A page from the index of volume two of the Advertencias. As in most copies, in this exemplar, held by the Benson Latin American Collection in Austin, Texas, a correction has been pasted down. The corrected section (folio 3) reads: “Eandem auctoritatem habent Porvinciales Ordinum Mendicantium, & quibus ipso commiserint per Omnimoda Adria. 6. Fratribus Mendicanti b9 concessa. Vide in Elencho. 1. par. ver. Absolucion y absolver. sub sinem."
17. Correction Close-Up
18. Dedication Page of the Advertencias (Primera Parte) The first page of the dedicatoria to the Advertencias (Primera Parte). Text is in roman font, with a subtitle in italics and a floral initial “A”. Text reads: DEDICATORIA. ¶ Prologo Dedicatorio del Auctor, a Nuestro Padre Fray Pedro de Pila Commissario General de todas las Provincias y Custodias desta nueva España, Florida y Phil- lippina. &. Aunque por ser estas Advertencias parte del confesionario que a V.P. dedique los días passados, no era necessario dedicarlas de nuevo: Pero porque aviendo començado a imprimirlas (viendo el mal aparejo que para esto avia) las dexava, y reservaba para tiempo mas acomodado, y V. P. con imperio y potestad de Prelado Superior, y amor muy antiguo de vero Padre me mandò e solicitò con toda Facsimile image taken from an exemplar (V1E1) at the Benson Latin American Collection, Austin, TX.
19. Del convento de Santa Barbara The twelfth leaf (recto side) of an exemplar of the Advertencias held by the Biblioteca José María Lafragua in Puebla, Mexico. Page shows a manuscript note, in ink, with some water damage, that appears to read “ del conbento de S[anta] Barbar[a].” Text reads “Yndios con la publicacion deste Libro, para que con facilidad pueda venir a manos de sus Ministros, y se consiga el fructo que el piadoso zelo y buenos trabajos del Auctor pretende. Fecha en este convento de Sancto Domingo desta Ciudad de Mexico. a 11 dias del mes de Iunio de 1601. Fray Hernando Bacan. [Beneath the text is a large half-page floral design in the shape of a diamond.]
21. Final page of the Indulgencias in the Advertencias.
22. Florentine Codex illustrations Page from a facsimile edition of the Florentine Codex manuscript (Historia de las cosas de nueva españa) is divided into four boxes; each one contains a colored drawing of a god in the Nahua pictorial style. Clockwise from upper left: First image notation reads “vitzilobuchtli otro hercules, Capitulo primero fo. 1.” Second reads “Tezcatlipaca. otro jupiter. ¶Capitulo tercero. fo. ibidem." Third reads: Tlaloc tlamazquy. dios de las pluujas. Capitulo quatro fo. 2.” and fourth reads “Paynal. vicario de vitzilobuchtli. Capitulo segundo fo. ibidem." Image comes from the World Digital Library from a manuscript held at the Medicea Laurenziana Library in Florence, Italy.
23. Folio 14 (1) of the Advertencias The first of two folios in the Advertencias to be numbered “14”. This image shows the recto (numbered) side of the page, which begins with the text: “¶Si el penitente quisiere nombrar en la confession al complice del delicti, en ninguna manera lo permita el confessor, por que pecarria gravamente si lo permitiesse, como enseñan Doctores graves. Vease el padre fr. Manuel P. p. sum. c. 53. concl. 8. num. 9.” Image is from an exemplar held by the Benson Latin American Collection.
24. Folio 14 (2) of the Advertencias The second of two folios in the Advertencias to be numbered “14”. This image shows the recto (numbered) side of the page, which shows a running header “Los Con|e||ores.” and the number 14 before beginning with the text: “¶El confessor a cuyos pies vinieren Indios 16 de obraje, procure ante todas cosas acabar con los amos y dueños, que les perdonen lo que les han cogido, y apañado de su casa: pues hablando moralmente pocos ay que no hurten algo, en los dichos lugares: y estan casi impossibilitados de poder satisfazer, y con estos podran absolver a sus penitentes. Image is from an exemplar held by the Benson Latin American Collection in Austin, Texas.
27. Huehuetlahtolli, que contiene las plàticas que los padres y madres hicieron á sus hijos y á sus hijas, y los señores á sus vasallos, todas llenas de doctrina moral y politica.
28. Icazbalceta Binding
29. Icazbalceta original binding
30. Index without correction A page from the index of volume two of the Advertencias. In most copies, the ninth and tenth lines have been replaced with a pasted-in correction. In this exemplar, held by Tulane University’s Latin American Library in New Orleans, Louisiana, the correction is missing and the original text can be seen. The corrected section (folio 3) reads: “Eandem auctoritatem habent Porvinciales Ordinum Mendicantium, & quibus ipso commiserint per Pauli. 3. Bullam que incipit, Altitudo divine Consilij. Vide in Elencho. 1. par. ver. Absolucion y absolver. sub sinem."
31. Joaquín García Icazbalceta
32. Juan Bautista's Sermonario
33. Juan Pablos' Constituciones del Arzobispado... (1556) Title page of the Constituciones, printed by Juan Pablos in 1556. Page is overtaken by a large rectangular square frame. Inside the frame is an elaborate design featuring rope tassles and ribbons surrounding a shield decorated with animal faces including eagles and goats. The shield, divided in three parts, shows two buildings and a abstract emblem. At the bottom are two nopal cacti and ribbons with the text "PRO XPO LE GA TIO VIE FVVIGIMVR". Beneath the image, the title reads "¶Constituciones del acrobispado y provincia de la muy ynsigne y muy leal ciudad de tenuxtitlã Mexico de la nueva España". Image from an exemplar held by the Benson Latin American Collection in Austin, TX.
35. Manual de Adultos, Juan Pablos, 1540 One of two surviving leaves from the Manual de adultos, the earliest surviving book known to have been printed in Nueva España (printed by Juan Pablos in 1540). The book is in blackletter, with a decorated initial G in black, a red title and black text. Image shows that it is bound in marbled paper. The fragment is currently held by the John Carter Brown Library, where it is bound with Juan de Zumárraga’s Dotrino Breve (1544).
37. Marca de Fuego on a copy of the Advertencias held at the Biblioteca Franciscana
38. Marca de Fuego on an exemplar of the Advertencias (Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavigero)
39. Marca en Tinta
41. Matching Catchwords
42. Matching catchwords from folio 304 of the Advertencias
43. Melchior Ocharte's Confessionario (1599) Title page of the Confessionario en lengua mexicana y castellana. In Roman and Italic fonts, with a shield in the center identical to that of the Advertencias. / Text reads: *Confessionario* en lengua mexicana y castellana. ¶Con muchas advertencias muy necessarias para los Confessores. ¶Compuesto por el Padre Fray Ioan Baptista de la orden del Seraphico Padre Sanct Francisco, lector de Theologia en esta provincia del sancto Evangelio, y guardian del convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco. [This is followed by a Franciscan shield in a circular, decorative frame. Image is divided in three parts; upper right shows two arms crossed with stigmata.] *Con privilegio* ¶En Sanctiago Tlatilulco, Por Melchior Ocharte. Año de. 1599. / Image from an exemplar held by the Benson Latin American Collection
44. Mismatched catchwords from folio 304 of the Advertencias
45. Mismatched catchwords in the Advertencias
47. Molina Title Page Title page of Molina’s Confessionario Breve, which was printed by Antonio de Espinosa (Mexico’s second printer) in 1565. The decorative title page is printed in black and red in Gothic font. Title text along top reads “Confessionario breve, en lengua Mexicana y Castellana: compuesto por el muy reverendo padre fray Alonso de Molina, de la orden del seraphic padre Sant Francisco.” This is followed by a large shield with red decoration, in a wreath of black and red roses and other decorations. Around the edge, a square frame features text that reads: (clockwise from bottom left) “Accipite Spiritum sanctum, quorum remiseritis peccata: remittuntur wis. Et quorum recin verities, recent sung. Joanis. 20.” bottom reads “En Mexico en casa de Antonio de Espinosa, Imp[re]ssor. 1565." Image is from an exemplar held by the John Carter Brown library.
48. Nameplate for Manual Arango Arias on a copy of the Advertencias Close-up shows a nameplate affixed to the front pastedown of an Advertencias exemplar. A circular frame reads “Manuel Arango Arias” over a laurel wreath, with Ex-Libris underneath. Inside is a shield in the shape of an open book divided in four pieces, each with an image. Clockwise from upper left, images are: 1. letters ABC 2. profile of a face 3. horizontal pen nib and 4. unclear, perhaps a paintbrush. Image also shows a manuscript note partially obscured by the nameplate. Pastedown suggests an early or original binding, and shows some wear including holes on the top. Exemplar is held by the Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavigero at the Universidad Iberoamericana.
49. Nicolas León Nameplate
53. Pear Thievery in the Advertencias Page from the Advertencias is in roman font, with running header reading “Aduertencias para”. Page discusses the nature of the sin of stealing pears. Text reads: “haga con malicia, y con animo de hacer daño pecca venialmente como dice S. Thomas. 2. secunde. q. 66. art. 6. y Navarro. c. 1. nu. 3. y Covarro. y otros. Porque en todos los preceptos, la poquedad de la cosa, o materia [salvo si ay menosprecio] libra de peccado mortal. La 2. que para saber quando la materia es leve, cuyo hurto es peccado venial, solamente se ha de considerar las circunstancias de las personas, Reynos, Provincias, y lugares, conviene a saber, se la persona a quien se hurta es rica, o pobre. Y asi segun Nava. Soto y la comu, si alguno hurta una cosa pequeña a un pobre, cuya falta le haze gran daño, o le causa grave pena, pecca mortalmente; como si uno hurtasse una Lesna a un çapatero, y unas Peras de un arbol, las quales su señor tenia guardadas para de ellas hazer un presente, como comunmente estos Naturales guardan sus frutillas, para este effecto. Lo. 3. se h de notar lo que dize el padre fr. Luys Lopez 2. p. Instructor ij conscientiae, que los criados que a sus señores hurtan oy un poco, y de aqui a un mes otro poco, y asi inerpolatim per menses, quo libet mese, a liquid modicum, de suerte que en fin de tres o quatro años, se venga a juntar, tanta quanti dad. Image shows folio 14v (second f14) from the copy held by the Benson Latin American Collection in Austin, Texas.
54. Pedro Balli's Confessionario Mayor (1578) Title page of the Confessionario Mayor, en la lengua Mexicana y Castellana. Text is framed by an elaborate classical design, with left and right columns depicting nude Adam and Eve, winged cherubs above and below. / Text reads: Confessionario Mayor, en la lengua Meixcana y Castellana. Compuesto por elmuy reverendo padre Fray Alonso Molina, de la orden del Seraphico Sant Francisco. En mexico. ¶En casa de Pedro Balli. Año de 1578. / Image is from an exemplar held by the Benson Latin American Collection.
55. Pedro Ocharte's Psalterium Title page of the Psalterium shows title framed by images of holy men. Six men along left and right side pose standing; men along bottom are reading or writing, while a holy figure on the top is surrounded by angels with wings. Title text in red and black roman script reads: "Psalterium, Aniphonarium Sanctorale, cu Psalmis, & Hymnis, positis in suis locis proprijs vniuscuiusq, diei sesti totiusanni, nue primo cum licentia excussum." Text followed by rectangular framed image of jesus on the cross, with two holy figures arms clasped in prayer. Text below reads "Mexici. Exeudebat Petrus Ocharte. M.D.LXXXIIIL."
58. Provenance note in a copy of the Advertencias Manuscript note registering 1810 acquisition of the Advertencias. Text reads "Año de 1810 Compre este, y otro del mismo autor, q[u]e su titulo es, Advertencias pa Confesores de los Naturales, aquel con el sello o marca del Carmen, ambos pa papel viejo, o escrito, pa coetes pa la mina de Stã. Textr. Caxxillo" Exemplar held by the Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavijero at the Universidad Iberoamericana.
59. Sahagun in the Advertencias
64. Standard Title Page, Part Two of the Advertencias The standard title page of volume two of the Advertencias. /Text reads “Advertencias. Para los confessores de los Naturales. ¶Compuestas por el padre Fray Ioan Baptista, de la Orden del Seraphico Padre Sanct Francisco, Lector de Theologia, y Guardian del Convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco: de la Provincia del Sancto Evangelio. Segunda Parte. [This is followed by a Franciscan shield in a circular, decorative frame. Image is divided in three parts; upper right shows two arms crossed with stigmata.] Con Privilegio. ¶En Mexico, En el convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco, Por M. Ocharte. año 1600. / Image represents an exemplar held at the Biblioteca Palafoxiana, Puebla, MX.
65. Standard Title Page, Primera Parte, Advertencias.... Title Page: Advertencias para los confessores de los naturales, by Juan Bautista, printed by Melchor Ocharte (1600). Text reads: "Advertencias. Para los confessores de los Naturales. Compuestas por el padre Fray Ioan Baptista, de la Orden del Seraphico Padre Sanct Francisco, Lector de Theologia, y Guardian del Convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco: de la Provincia del Sancto Evangelio. Primera Parte. [Shield in round, decorated border. Interior divided in three. Crossed hands with stigmata in upper right corner.] Con previlegio. En Mexico, En el convento de Sanctiago Tlatilulco, Por M. Ocharte. Año 100." Facsimile of a copy held by the Benson Latin American Collection.

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Advertencias Abroad: The British & Foreign Bible Society
We know that the eighteenth and nineteenth century saw a general dispersal of early colonial Mexican books. But who acquired books abroad, and to what end? Here we consider the exemplar of the Advertencias held at the Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavigero at the Universidad Iberoamericana in Mexico City. In the prior section, we saw from the marca de fuego that the book was originally held in a religious collection. However, according to a note on the first page, in 1810 the book found a new home:

Año de 1810
Compre este, y otro del mismo autor, q[u]e su titulo es, Advertencias pa Confesores de los Naturales, aquel con el sello o marca del Carmen, ambos pa papel viejo, o escrito, pa coetes pa la mina de Stã. Textr.
Caxxillo

On the opposite page, another note shows that the book did not remain long in Caxxillo's hands:

Presented __ Benj[ami]n Blinkhorn
____ the
British & [For]eign Bible Society
1833
The transition that we observe here is characteristic of the movement of Mexican religious artifacts during this period. In 1810, the same year that the Grito de Dolores set off the Mexican War of Independence, the book was purchased by what is probably a local collector or dealer. Did Caxxillo buy the book directly from a religious order? Perhaps, but we can also speculate that it may have been seized or stolen from the library as demand for rare books grew and as the power of the religious orders dwindled. The fact that the book was purchased stands out, alerting us to a new market for these artifacts.

By 1833, the book had found itself in the hands of the British and Foreign Bible Society. The British and Foreign Bible Society was established in 1804 to translate and distribute vernacular bibles to Christians around the world. We can imagine that a book like the Advertencias would have been of interest to this group because of its religious content, its evangelizing mission, and its emphasis on indigenous languages, all of which paralleled the Bible Society's mission. We know that at the Columbian Exposition in 1893, the Society published a pamphlet featuring passages from its biblical translations in dozens of languages, including Nahuatl. However, in this case the book was presented as a gift, perhaps to a wealthy donor in England. So it may not have been valued for its content at all. It may instead of served as a symbol of a certain history of missionary work which the British and Foreign Bible Society hoped to continue in the nineteenth century.

Many copies of the Advertencias left Mexico for the United States and elsewhere during this tumultuous period in Mexican history. The exemplar currently at the San Jacinto Monument, for example, was acquired was donated to the library by George A. Hill, Jr., nineteenth-century museum chairman and renowned book collector whose mission for the museum was, among other things, to "extend and diffuse knowledge of our history, and promote and perpetuate peace, friendship and sympathetic understanding between the people of Texas and the people of Mexico, Spain, France and the Latin-American Republics."

The Bible Society copy is particularly interesting, however, because it reflects historical continuity between the missionary work of the Spanish Franciscans in the sixteenth century and that of the British missionaries in the nineteenth century. Both groups emphasized philology as a means of providing access to religious texts, and both were dedicated to the global spread of Christianity.

Important differences can be identified between the two groups, however. The Spanish mendicant friars served and were financed by the Spanish crown and by the church. Their work justified Spanish colonialism and participated in the consolidation of Spanish political power. By the seventeenth century, however, their philological project was abandoned in favor of Spanish-language indoctrination as both church and state became increasingly anxious about the dissemination of heterodox texts in indigenous languages (see Mignolo, 1995).

In contrast, though the British and Foreign Bible Society was patronized by the British crown, it acted separately from (and in tandem with) British colonial rule. As a Protestant organization, its goal was not to indoctrinate new converts, but rather to provide Christians across the globe with the direct access to holy texts that was necessary for worship. Its global outreach marks a shift in power in the nineteenth century as Great Britain became, politically and economically, the center of colonial and industrial power across the globe.

Today, this copy of the Advertencias is part of the Biblioteca Manuel Arango Arias at the Universidad Iberoamericana. D.F. As the printed catalog for the collection explains,
"A lo largo de varios años, el empresario Manuel Arango logró reunir una importante colección de libros, folletos, manuscritos y fotografías sobre Mexico y su historia. Con el criterio de bibliófilo, pretendió obtener lo que se conoce como "tesoros bibliográficos", esto es, "inunables mexicanos", eiciones príncipe, ediciones limitadas, raras, obras dedicadas por sus autores; siempre buscando el ejemplar en el mejor estado de conservación posible. Este criterio, no obstante, estuvo condicionado por las complejas oportunidades del mercado que ha llegado a trascender nuestras fronteras, encarciendo las piezas y haciendo más difícil la competencia al participar en él instituciones y coleccionistas de otros horizontes, generalmente con mayores presupuestos. Sin embargo, dicha circunstancia llevó a localizar un buen número de impresos o manuscritos en el extranjero para ser traídos posteriormente a nuestro país."

The Colección Biblioteca Manuel Arango Arias was donated to the Acervos Históricos of the Biblioteca Francisco Xavier Clavigero at the Universidad Iberomaericana on April 18, 1996, and remains there today.

The return of the Advertencias to Mexican institutions in the twentieth century marks the broader return of cultural heritage artifacts to their places of origin, either voluntarily or with the support of philanthropists like Manuel Arango.