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• 1 2015-11-12T22:27:18-08:00 Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice 44 A Floor Tile by Domenico Beccafumi image_header 2016-01-20T14:02:42-08:00 The floor tile Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice, located in the Cathedral of Siena and created ca. 1519-1524 by Domenico Beccafumi, shows Elijah and King Ahab facing off in preparation for the competition Elijah will shortly win against the priests of Baal, whom Ahab supports.  At the time the tile was created Siena was an independent Italian city-state located on the edge of the papal-states, and its cathedral was a major civic and religious center for the city-state, showing the importance of Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice, both symbolically and aesthetically.¹  Taxes specifically for the building and decoration of the cathedral were collected by the city, with a well-paid city official, the Master of Works, assigned to oversee the construction, design, and running of the cathedral, demonstrating the centrality of the cathedral to Siena and so the intense scrutiny and importance of any artwork within it.²  Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice, by Domenico Beccafumi, reflects Renaissance views and conflicts, particularly with the Ottoman Empire, in its depiction of Ahab and Elijah.
  
  During the time of this tile’s construction the Ottoman Empire was nearing its height.  In 1529 the empire would lay siege to Vienna, and it had already conquered Constantinople in 1453, showing the Ottomans formed both a historic and present threat to much of Eastern Europe, including Siena.  Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice depicts Ahab and his supporters wearing turbans, headgear associated with the East, and appearing as a multiethnic entity, as the Ottoman Empire was, forming close a parallel between Elijah’s enemies and Siena’s.  That Elijah defeated his enemies may have made the tile especially hopeful for the Sienese.  Many Renaissance Europeans considered the Ottomans to be powerful and arrogant, fitting loosely with the Biblical depiction of Ahab as commanding many people yet making unfortunate decisions.³  Siena was never actually invaded by the Ottomans, instead playing host to a variety of western European mercenaries and conquerors, but the differing religion and culture of the Ottomans may been more daunting than the semi-familiar western Europeans, despite the Ottomans being relatively tolerant of different religions and cultures within their borders.⁴  Martin Luther had published his Ninety-Five Thesis in 1517, shortly before the tile’s construction, but he wrote in German and the ramifications of his actions did not spread at once, meaning that Islam and Judaism were perhaps the only non-Catholic religions Siena came in significant contact with at the time of the tile's creation.⁵ The Ottoman Empire’s military prowess matched how Ahab was supported by a larger and nominally more powerful force.  The relatively equal size of the backers of Ahab and Elijah in the floor tile, despite the Biblical account repeatedly describing Elijah as being alone, makes the competition more relevant in terms of war.⁶  The composition of Elijah and Ahab go to Make Sacrifice draws parallels between Ahab and his supporters and the Ottoman Empire.
  
  Elijah’s supporters hold certain Renaissance ideals.  One of his supporters holds a book, showing Elijah is supported by learning as well as by God.  Printing of books had been introduced relatively recently to Italy, meaning that although books were expensive and still held prestige they were increasingly visible.⁷  Beccafumi visited Rome to study its art, likely influencing the quasi-Classical drapery and sandals of the figures standing behind Elijah.  This depiction associates Elijah with a non-Biblical tradition of learning and culture, as well as the humanist philosophy based on Classical learning that was becoming more relevant during the Renaissance.  This human-centered philosophy would also explain the panel’s focus on Elijah and Ahab instead of the actions of God.⁸  Siena was fairly close to Rome and well within the bounds of the ancient Roman Empire, further associating the city-state and its past Roman identity with Elijah and therefore God.  In portraying the two sides using markedly different imagery, Ahab’s coinciding loosely with the Ottoman Empire and Elijah's with Classical Rome, Beccafumi drew a parallel between Elijah’s contest with the priests of Baal and the potential struggle Siena, and more largely Italy, potentially faced with the Ottoman Empire.
   
  <sup>1. Evelyn Lincoln, ​The Invention of the Italian Renaissance Printmaker (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000), 62.
  2. Judith Hook, Siena; A City and Its History (London: Hamidh Hamilton, 1979), 56-57.
  3. Anna Contadini and Claire Norton, ed., The Renaissance and the Ottoman World (Farnham: Ashgate Publishing Limited, 2013), 64.
  4. Clifford R. Backman, The Cultures of the West; A History (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2013), 398.
  5. Ibid., 401.
  6. 1 Kings 18:22.
  7. Harry Hearder, Italy; A Short History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990), 109.
  8. Ibid., 103.
  
  Note: Title picture is of the Cathedral of Siena.</sup>