Gangnam Style - PSY ft. MC Hammer [American Music Awards 2012]
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K-POP — POPULAR MUSIC OF SOUTH KOREA
Header image: K-POP band BTS. Source: Wikipedia via the Korean Culture and Information Service, CC BY 2.0
KOREAN IMMIGRATION AND KOREAN AMERICANS
In 1924, the U.S. Congress designated Asia as a "barred zone" from which immigration was totally prohibited. Asians were ineligible for citizenship and thus could not own property. Koreans were also subjected to employment discrimination and housing segregation. The prohibition was finally lifted during the Korean War in 1952, allowing Korean Americans to vote. Thereafter, Korean immigration to the United States mainland occurred in two waves. The first, beginning in 1950, "consists of women who married American soldiers, and children adopted into [mostly white] American families. Nearly 100,000 so-called 'military brides' entered the United States between 1950 and 1989, while approximately 300,000 Korean adoptees entered the United States beginning in 1953."[National Association of Korean Americans, quoted in the Penguin Random House Teacher's Guide (2020)]The second wave of Korean immigrants to mainland America began in 1967 when Koreans came to the U.S. under the occupational and family reunification preferences of the 1965 Immigration Act. Most of these immigrants settled in New York, Chicago, Los Angeles, and New Jersey. According to a BBC News article, nearly sixty percent of second-generation Korean Americans completed a four-year college education in 2011. Many enter into prestigious fields. On the other hand, many Korean Americans are engaged in low-level jobs.
In 1994, the National Association of Korean Americans was founded in New York, becoming the first national civil and human rights organization of Korean Americans.According to the United States Census Bureau, in 2020, there were 1,989,519 Korean Americans who self-reported as “Korean alone or in any combination.” By 2022, the Census Bureau’s American Community Survey estimated that this number had grown to 2,051,572 . . in just two years. Among the over 2 million Korean Americans, 48% were born in America . . . The Pew Research Center estimates that there are approximately 150,000 undocumented Koreans, bringing the total of all Korean individuals in the U.S. to 2.2 million. Within this group, just over 1.7 million are native-born or naturalized American citizens.A 2022 Migration Policy Institute study claims that Korean immigrants make up the tenth largest immigrant population in the U.S. and the fifth largest group from Asia. [Korean American Institute, 2026]
INTRODUCTION
With 25.1M identified fans, K-pop is a major audience in United States. The audience is predominantly female (≈61%) with an average age of 32 years, and geographically concentrated in California, Texas, Florida, and New York. In 2023, the top 100 K-pop groups generated more than 9.2 billion streams in the U.S. alone.
K-Pop is part of the 1990s Korean cultural wave, known as “Hallyu,” occurring during South Korea’s dramatic economic expansion and globalization. From its status after the Korean War as the poorest country in the world, South Korea has become a major world player in manufacture, trade, and finance, and an expert wielder of soft power. The 1988 Olympics held in the gleaming city of Seoul elevated South Korea to international prominence. Psy’s Gangnam Style opened the pop music floodgates in 2012. Millions of fans of boy groups and girls groups followed. K-Pop conquered America in 2017 when boy band BTS rocketed to the top of the U.S. pop charts.
In a world of economic and cultural globalization, The Korean Wave did not need a large population of immigrants, a shared border, or historical revival to become an integral part of music in America. Instead, local entrepreneurs, with the avid participation of the Korean government, built an entertainment industry from the ground up, with Intelligent, if often ruthless, training regimens for K-Pop "idols." Korea was relentlessly determined to make the newly invented art form a global phenomenon by combining and transforming U.S. popular music genres and dance styles into something utterly irresistable. K-pop, K-drama, and other aspects of traditional and modern Korean culture entered the U.S. by exposure through the internet, media, and touring, gradually becoming a major cultural force, and building armies of fanatic U.S. followers and consumers.
The success of Hallyu throughout Asia, the Americas, and Europe would not have happened without the unique nature, talented artists, and high quality of K-Pop productions. Far from being an exotic curiosity or a transitory craze, the packaging of song, rap, dance, sexiness, and visual appeal has continued to entice foreign audiences since the 1990's. The astounding work ethic of boy bands and girls groups who spent countless hours recording, filming, and touring was a major investment that brought international attention to K-Pop and, more broadly, to Korean cultural products and Korea itself. By the first quarter of the 21st century, partnerships between Korean and U.S. conglomerates aim to expand this form of Korean popular music, and to foster a transnational identity that will have major impacts on the nature and direction of K-Pop.
BIGBANG - FANTASTIC BABY M/V
Source: YouTubeThere is no K-Pop without music videos — K-Pop is dance, fashion, image, cinematography, color, concept, style, business, collaboration, perfect hair and plastic surgery. K-Pop is everywhere, branded, marketed, and industrialized by conglomerates.
In an article in the February 2026 New York Times about how American pop music has become "multilingual, polycultural, and international at its very core," Noah Schachtman cites a number of examples, including the globalization of popular music of South Korea.
South Korea has become a cultural factory, exporting its artists, its songs and its methods for manufacturing stars and promoting them across the globe. It has become so effective that it’s transcended any nationality. Katseye, the girl group assembled by Geffen Records and multinational conglomerate HYBE, was nominated for a best new artist Grammy. Its members are Swiss, Filipino, American and Korean, and the primary writer for its hyperpop hit “Gnarly” grew up in China and makes music in three languages. HYBE recently set up a training and development center in Mexico City to replicate the Katseye model.
Schachtman describes how 2025 was big for Korean and Korean-inspired acts:
Members of the K-pop supergroup Blackpink had a breakout year: Rosé scored a top 10 hit in the United States with her song with Bruno Mars, “APT.,” and her bandmate Lisa made her acting debut in HBO’s “The White Lotus.” Then there’s the overwhelming success of “KPop Demon Hunters” [with 20.5 billion viewing minutes, the biggest streaming movie of 2025], whose K-pop hits are all sung by Asian Americans. But that’s likely a warm-up for 2026, when the biggest band in the world, BTS, will release its first studio album in nearly six years and embark on a five-continent tour. Streaming services such as Spotify and YouTube have replaced the old cultural gatekeepers, enabling fans to share songs and videos across borders. South Korea is today the fourth-biggest exporter of recorded music.
Amy Qin in another New York Times article points out that KPop Demon Hunters and K-dramas are so popular in the U.S. that "more and more Americans, with little personal connection to the country, are learning the Korean language or alphabet", or hangul. . . Demand is so high that universities from California to Arkansas are expanding their courses in Korean language and culture."
LIFE BEFORE K-POP — THE CHRONOLOGY
Korean popular musics grew out of conditions of occupation and war. First, Japanese colonial rule from 1910-1945, then after WWII the occupation of South Korea by the U.S., followed by the devastation of the Korean War, and rebuilding under dictator C. H. Park.Under Japanese occupation, Korea underwent rapid expansion in urbanization, technology, industry, and commerce. The technologies of recording and broadcasting made a wide range of music available. By the 1920s a popular Korean song heard by city dwellers in theaters, bars, movie houses, and cafés might mix European instruments, Korean words, Japanese melody, and the stylings of early American jazz. The first concert of popular music in Korea took place in 1933. By the time of the Japanese surrender in August 1945, Korea was the second-most industrialized nation in Asia after Japan itself.The victors of World War II divided the peninsula into zones occupied by the the Soviets in the North and the Americans in the South. With no agreement on unification, two separate governments were established. South Korea was officially named the Republic of Korea, or ROK. North Korean forces invaded the South in 1950, beginning the Korean War. The North drew support from China, the South from the U. S. After three bloody years of fighting, in which some 3 million Koreans, 1 million Chinese, and 54,000 Americans were killed, the dividing line between the two antagonistic states was unchanged. [Asia for Educators]
South Korea underwent another revolution: the end of Japanese musical dominance, and the beginning of American musical hegemony. With Korea’s economy devastated by war, the soldiers stationed over a vast network of U.S. military bases were practically the only consumers of music performed and recorded by Koreans, who catered to American tastes by imitating then-current American popular music. In the late 1950s, revenues from performances for U.S. GIs probably exceeded the total export earnings of South Korea. [John Lie, K-Pop: Popular Music, Cultural Amnesia, and Economic Innovation in South Korea, University of California Press.]
South Korea was under the dictatorship of Chung Hee Park from 1961-1979. Park spurred the growth plan that led to South Korea’s modernization. The beginning of that era saw the growth of recording industry and radio and TV broadcasting, creating a national style of popular song — called trot — that spoke of the post-war experiences of common people in an emotional style that’s been linked to the Korean folk art pansori. To a new generation, trot was sloppily sentimental and old-fashioned. To Chung Hee Park, trot reeked of Japanese influence. The new types of popular music in ROK at the beginning of the 60s were exemplified by the pop styling of Myeong- suk Han's "The Boy in the Yellow Shirt" and Add4's Beatles-influenced pop rock.
Image source:Han Myung-sook, Sohn Seok-woo Melody Vol. 1, featuring "The Boy in the Yellow Shirt," Venus Records, 1961, vinyl. Reproduced here for educational, non-profit purposes under Fair Use guidelines.Most of Korea however, lacking electricity, was without access to American popular music, or found American music loud and alien. In the 1970s average income in ROK shot up by more than 100 percent; but as the Park regime became increasingly authoritarian and repressive, American-style, psychedelic rock (like San Ul-Lim's "A Flower in the Mist") and folk revival songs were banned, due to concerns over morality or political content.
San Ul Lim - "A Flower In The Mist"Source: YouTubeThe crescendo of the government’s crackdown— the ban on long hair in 1970, and on miniskirts in 1973— climaxed in 1975 with Presidential Emergency Decree Number 9. The 1975 edict banned South Korean records and 261 foreign songs, on the grounds of everything from “negative influences on national security” to “pessimistic content.” Later that year, in December, Sin [leader of Add4] was imprisoned in connection with a sensational marijuana scandal. Thereafter, and until the mid-1980s, rock music was silenced in the South Korean soundscape, along with the nascent culture of rock music, including sexy clothing. South Korea in the mid-1980s was a morass of change and contradiction. Affluence and poverty, starkly juxtaposed, coexisted with a military rule that seemed permanently engaged in surveillance and discipline. Students and workers demonstrated; riot police beat them into submission. Popular music was part and parcel of the entrenched struggles. [John Lie]
All of this began to change with the extraordinary and unprecedented rise in wealth in the ROK, as indicated by this chart showing growth in GNI in South Korea from 1960 to 2017. The younger generation was able to become independent and create a market for popular music idioms of the West that had long been suppressed by the military government. The puritanical stance of the government and the sanctimoniousness of the student protest music were upset by a new art form — the music video. The rise of MTV and Michael Jackson's superb dancing skills brought popular music and dance together and set the stage for K-Pop's focus on the integration of music, dance, and image. Wan-Son Kim, the "Korean Madonna," and Nam-jung Pak, the "Korean Michael Jackson," sang peppy songs and became known for their dynamic dancing. K-Pop's idol groups were prefigured by Sobangch'a ("Firetruck") in 1987. That same year, massive political protests by all segments of society across South Korea led to the transition to political democracy.K-POP GENERATIONS
K-pop is broadly categorized into five "generations." A generation can be defined or characterized by debut period, a musical trend, and/or a trend in the industry. Early eras focused on domestic dominance. More recently, K-pop has become a digitally-driven, multi-generational global phenomenon. Earlier generations focused on physical albums and fan club items, while later generations include digital content, collectibles, and platform-based releases. This evolution reflects the changing relationship between artists and fans.FIRST GENERATION — 1990s to Early 2000s — THE KOREAN WAVE BEGINS
- Seo Taiji and Boys
- "I Know" (1992)
The Hallyu (Korean Wave) begins. Seo Taiji and Boys debut on television in South Korea. They introduced a new style of music that mixed traditional Korean music with hip hop, rap, and rock. "Nan Aroyo" ("I Know") revolutionized the Korean music industry by introducing rap and modern dance elements, which were relatively new to Korean audiences. Their influence extended beyond music, impacting fashion, dance, and youth culture in Korea.
SM Entertainment, founded in 1995 by record producer Lee Soo-man, pioneered the K-Pop idol system. During this time, promotion was focused on television, and the industry was largely domestic. The concept of the "idol" became a central aspect of K-Pop, emphasizing a wholesome image and multifaceted talent. These groups were designed to appeal to a broad audience through a combination of music, dance, and visual appeal. Lee Soo-man instituted a rigorous, boot-camp-style training and production-line system for performers, which was revolutionary at the time.
The boy band H.O.T. ("Hi-five Of Teenagers") was the first idol group to debut, in 1996. H.O.T.'s immense popularity set the stage for future boy groups. H.O.T. also played a significant role in shaping the fan culture in K-Pop. Fan clubs played a crucial role in promoting artists and fostering a sense of community among fans. This period saw the beginning of organized fan activities, including fan meetings, fan chants, and coordinated support during performances.
- S.E.S.
- "(Cause) I'm Your Girl" (1997)
S.E.S. (Sea, Eugene, Shoo) was a three-member group that debuted under SM Entertainment in 1997. S.E.S. paved the way for future girl groups by proving that female idols could achieve substantial success. Their debut album I'm Your Girl sold 650,000 copies, becoming the third best-selling album by a female group in South Korea.
- BoA
- "No. 1" (2002)
SM Entertainment also launched the first successful solo K-Pop star, BoA, the "Queen of K-Pop." With the release of her debut Japanese studio album, Listen to My Heart (2002), BoA became the first South Korean pop star to break through in Japan. Her self-titled English album (2009) became the first record by a K-Pop artist to appear on the Billboard 200, debuting at number 127.
SECOND GENERATION — 2003 – Early 2012 — EMERGENCE OF IDOL GROUPS AND INTERNATIONAL OUTREACH
This era is often referred to as K-Pop’s “Golden Expansion Period" due to the proliferation of idol groups and K-Pop's global reach over the internet, especially music video productions on YouTube. While earlier K-Pop had focused primarily on pop and dance music, the second generation saw the incorporation of various genres, including hip-hop, R&B, rock, and electronic music. Fashion played a crucial role, with idols setting trends and becoming style icons. Fans from around the world could easily access music videos, performances, and behind-the-scenes content, fostering a sense of connection with their favorite idols. The second generation saw the creation and popularization of lightsticks and photocards, two iconic aspects of K-pop fandom culture.
This era solidified the dominance of the “Big 3” — SM Entertainment; YG Entertainment, established 1996 by Yang Hyun-suk, former member of Seo Taiji and Boys; and JYP Entertainment, founded by singer-songwriter Park Jin-young in 1997.
SM, founded by Lee Soo-man, is credited with pioneering the K-Pop idol training system. Songs for SM groups were created a system to source specific sounds for each group, usually drawing on the Europop songwriting talents of Scandinavian composers. SM productions stressed strong vocal projection and polished visuals.
JYP stressed gender-specific concepts for boy band and girl groups. JYP boy bands represent a tough, masculine image, and aggressive choreography. Girl groups exemplify cuteness and sensuality.
YG Entertainment's productions are strongly influenced by hip hop, reflecting the background of the agency's in-house producer, Korean-American Teddy Park. Songs were also composed by group members, notably G-Dragon of BigBang. YG typically maintains a similar style across groups regardless of gender.
- TVXQ! — THE BLUEPRINT FOR SECOND GENERATION K-POP
- "Mirotic" (2008)
TVXQ! are one of the most important groups in K-Pop history due to their smashing and sustained success in breaking into the Japanese market, an essential step in the globalization of K-Pop. Formed as a five-member boy band by SM Entertainment in 2003, TVXQ! had achieved massive popularity by 2006. The group's fandom, known as Cassiopeia, held a Guinness World Record for having the largest official fan club in the world, with over 800,000 registered members.
TVXQ! is still active, although the original quintet become a duo after three members resigned and sued SM Entertainment for exploitative working conditions and appallingly low pay. But the group will forever be remembered primarily for one song that has been described as the blueprint for the perfect idol group. "Mirotic" is the title song on the group's eponymous fourth studio album, which swept all physical album categories across South Korea's biggest award ceremonies in 2008, and was the first album in four years to surpass the 500,000 sales mark. "Mirotic" is hailed by music critics as one of the greatest songs in K-Pop history. Both Billboard and Rolling Stone named it as one of the best boy band songs of all time. It has reportedly received over 4,100,000 digital downloads in South Korea, making it the group's most downloaded single in the country. The song has been covered by more than 30 K-Pop idols and groups.
"Mirotic" - English translation of lyrics
What makes "Mirotic" iconic and a model for group K-Pop songs?
The memorable chorus (refrain). The chorus of the K-Pop song, written by three professional Danish pop-song composers, is sharply molded and incisive.
The arrangement by SM's Yoo Young-jin, who also wrote the Korean lyrics. Since K-Pop songs are mostly performed by gendered groups, arrangers can achieve a variety of combinations, from solo to combined vocalists, and a variety of vocal styles, from rap to R&B. Yoo's arrangement switches from the groups singing the chorus in close harmony, to a fast-paced rap section by Yoochun and Yunho, and, famously, the legendary climactic high note (E5) sung by Max Changmin.
The choreography by American dancer Kenny Worland, a collaboration that marked the beginning of K-Pop producers working with top-tier American choreographers. "Mirotic" revolutionized K-Pop choreography by replacing the laid-back hip hop style of dance with sharp-defined movements, striking silhouettes, complex synchronized choreography, and demanding style. The choreography introduces what would become a hallmark of K-Pop, the coupling of a particular dance move with the song's chorus. Worland fits percussive vocal rhythms of the chorus with rhythmic steps, positions, and quick sharp arm movements, while the soft vowel sound of "you" that languishes over two long notes is matched with sustained smooth movement.
Fashion and image. Idols are chosen for their good looks. Hair styles, make-up, and fashions for music videos are meticulously curated. "Mirotic" sharply tailored blazers over bare torsos, tank tops, and goth accessories make the idols sexy , if not sexualized.
Music video as story telling. "Mirotic" is a made-up, bilingual term coined by member Hero Jaejoong. It combines the Korean word miro (미로), meaning "maze," and the English suffix -tic, meant to describe an inescapable state of being tangled up in love. "'Mirotic' isn’t just a love song—it’s about irresistible attraction, like a magic spell you can’t break free from. The introduction's ominous electronic sounds, the use of a minor key, and persistent minor third intervals give the song its dark menacing quality. "The lyric shows how K-pop often borrows from myth, fantasy, and magic to express human emotions." [yaeum.com] The chorus lyric "I've got you under my skin," was considered too sexually suggestive by the Korean Commission of Youth Protection, which ruled that "Mirotic" was detrimental to youths and declared that the lyrics were provocative and overly sexual. (The decision was eventually overturned in court.) The commissions' objection to the lyric in "Mirotic" seems ironic, given the bare chests in dance segments and the story line of the video itself, which depicts a red-clad sorceress who places band members in various bondage scenarios.
- WONDER GIRLS — GIRL IDOLS AND THE U.S. MARKET
- "Tell Me" (2010)
Wonder Girls "Tell me" M/V
Source: YouTubeThe five members of Wonder Girls were the first K-Pop group to make a serious push into the U.S. market. The group was formed by SM Entertainment in 2007. They released an English version of their retro-style hit “Nobody” in the U.S. in 2009, making them the first South Korean group to chart on the Billboard Hot 100. That summer, they gained important grassroots exposure by opening for the Jonas Brothers on tour. They headlined their own North American tour in 2010 and released a second English single, "2 Different Tears." Two years later Wonder Girls pioneered the strategy of releasing a song, "Like Money," featuring the popular American musician Akon.
The group's management was also the first to conceive of a product that allowed fans to create a personal bond with idols by producing a movie, Wonder Girls, that shared the off-stage activities of group members exploring New York City during their tour, and culminated in a talent competition at the Apollo Theater. The movie received limited attention since it aired on the pay television channel TeenNick, when the K-Pop industry was just beginning to make videos available globally for free on YouTube. The movie did however inspire producers to create similar projects that introduce groups by mixing concert footage with day-to-day edits of group members while touring. Showing off-stage daily-life footage makes the idols seem accessible and authentic. Wonder Girls was followed by BIGBANG MADE, a 2016 film that documents the K-Pop group's 340-day MADE 2015-16 World Tour and was released globally. More recently, legendary singer/songwriter/dancer Jay Park introduced boy band LNGSHOT with the 2026 debut music video of "4Sho 4Sho," a song co-written with group members.
- SUPER JUNIOR — BOY IDOLS, SUBUNITS, AND CONCERT TOURS
- "Sorry, Sorry" (2009)WSUPER JUNIOR 슈퍼주니어 '쏘리 쏘리 (SORRY, SORRY)' MV
Source: YouTube
Super Junior was formed as a 12-member group by SM Entertainment in 2005. Members were chosen by for their talents as all-around entertainers — actors, MCs, models, radio hosts — inspiring other management companies to train music groups in multiple aspects of the entertainment industries. Super Junior was the best-selling K-Pop group for four years in a row, from 2009 to 2012. International recognition came following the release of their best-selling single, "Sorry, Sorry."
Super Junior is widely credited as the first K-pop group to introduce the subunit concept, dividing members into smaller groups to target different music industries and audiences simultaneously. A subunit makes sense since "it arrives with an existing fanbase, brand recognition and promotional infrastructure already in place, while allowing agencies to test out different concepts or market without fundamentally altering the identity of the original group." [Pyo Kyung-min, in an article in The Korean Times] Subunits are now pre-planned and built into the original group concept. For instance, third-generation group SEVENTEEN was organized to perform primarily as one group with 13 members, but are also divided into three units—hip-hop, vocal, and performance—each with a different area of specialization, and have also produced six sub-units. SEVENTEEN "Clap" (2017). SM's 2016 group NCT consisted originally of 25 members divided into 7 subgroups. NCT is emblematic of the current marketing strategy of forming a group with members of different nationalities. In addition to South Koreans, members of NCT come from China, Macau, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand, Canada, and the U.S.
Super Junior is also credited with releasing the first K-pop tour movie, "Super Show 3 3D," which debuted in South Korean theaters in 2011. The movie was a major milestone in bringing large-scale K-pop concert experiences to the big screen. Since then a number of K-Pop groups have produced on-demand streaming concert videos including Tomorrow X Together's Our Lost Summer; BLACKPINK The Movie; BTS's Permission to Dance; and Stray Kids: The DominATE Experience, a full-length concert video that includes behind-the-scenes footage and intimate personal interviews with each member.
2PM was a group developed by JYP Entertainment in 2008. JYP is noted for emphasizing gender differences between boy band and girl bands. "Hands Up" is from their second studio album. 2PM pioneered the jimseung-dol (beast idol) trend in the mid-to-late 2000's. Jimseundol represents a tough, masculine image, aggressive choreography and acrobatic stunts. 2PM is one of the first K-Pop groups to write their own songs, taking over the reins of J. Y. Park himself, who was responsible for nearly all of JYP's hits up to that point. 2PM also was was innovative in its international makeup. Four of the group's six members had lived in the United States. Thai-American member Nichkhum became the first Thai idol in the Korean entertainment industry. The group is a leader in the Korean Wave, achieving commercial success in Japan and Thailand. Early in their career, 2PM established themselves among the most prominent advertising models in South Korea, signing endorsement deals for high-profile American brands including Calvin Klein and Coca-Cola.
- B.A.P.
- "Warrior" (2012), from their debut album
Similar to 2PM, the four members of B.A.P. ("Best, Absolute, Perfect") cultivated the K-Pop "bad boy" concept: rebellious, edgy, and noir. The group was created by notorious and short-lived TS Entertainment in 2012, and was the company's only big successful act. Like 2PM, group members wrote much of their own material, and released multiple Japanese albums. In 2014 the band's first studio album First Sensibility topped the Billboard World Albums Chart upon its release. B.A.P. innovated a now-familiar strategy of publishing "teaser" photos and/or album tracks before an official debut, to stir up fan excitement.
- GIRLS' GENERATION — AEGYO CONCEPT
- "Gee" (2012)
Girls' Generation, a nine-member group formed by JYP Entertainment in 2007, achieved phenomenal success with their bubblegum pop single "Gee" in 2009. It became the first girl-group video to amass 100 million views on YouTube. This description by Michael Fuhr, could apply to many of the songs by K-Pop girl groups such as Wonder Girls and, to an extent, the fourth-generation retro style of NewJeans and Kiss of Life.
In performing exaggerated gestures, along with wide eyes, gaping mouths, pneumatic pouts, and fingers or palms on their cheeks, the pop idols employ and reiterate the standardized and gendered behavioral codes for female cuteness in Korean society. In Korean parlance, it is called aegyo, a term that may translate into "charm" but implies more ambivalent notions underlying the coquettish behavior of young Korean females. Their high and squeaky girlie voices and congruent with this gestural repertoire, framed by a dreamy innocent recitative in the introduction and girlish giggles at the end of the song. [Michael Fuhr, Globalization and Popular Music in South Korea: Sounding Out K-Pop, Routledge, 2017]
- 2NE1 — GIRL CRUSH CONCEPT
- "I Am The Best" (2011)
2NE1 formed by YG Entertainment in 2009 are among the most influential K-pop girl groups of all time. Known for their musical experimentation, fashion, and stage presence, they are a leading figure of the Korean Wave, recognized for expanding girl group styles in the Korean music industry, which in turn broke stereotypes of K-Pop. [Wikipedia]
"I Am the Best" was released for digital download and streaming in 2011. Written and produced by Teddy Park. The song and music video pioneered the "girl crush" concept, which denotes themes of ferocity and female empowerment. Many publications ranked it among the best K-pop songs of the decade and all time. "I Am the Best" is an electro house and electropop track that integrates hip hop and Middle Eastern elements through its instrumentation. Its lyrics contain themes of self-confidence and narcissism.
- BIGBANG — INDEPENDENT MUSIC AND IMAGE
- "Bang Bang Bang" (2015)
Although YG Entertainment achieved success in Korea and Japan with the 2003 debut of solo idol singer Se7en, the agency's international breakthrough came four years later with with a string of hits by boy band BigBang, beginning with "Lies", which topped Korean music charts for a record-breaking six consecutive weeks. Formed in 2006 as a five-member group, BigBang are known for maintaining tight control over their music, heavily involving themselves in songwriting and record production since their debut, unlike many Korean idol groups. As leader, G-Dragon has had a central role in producing almost their entire discography across a ten-year span and was credited as the main songwriter for the group's earlier hits.
Eleven of BigBang's singles have reached number one on South Korea's Gaon Digital Chart. BigBang is one of the highest selling boy groups of all time, selling 150 million records and counting. Forbes Korea ranked them as one of the most powerful celebrities in South Korea from 2009 to 2016; and they were the first Korean artists to be included on the Forbes Celebrity 100 (2016), and 30 Under 30 list of most influential musicians in the world (2017).
BigBang's influence extends beyond the music industry, having shaped major fashion international trends. Dubbed "Big Bang fashion", their style has been followed extensively throughout Asia and made them into a cultural phenomenon in South Korea
THIRD GENERATION — 2012-2019 — GLOBALIZATION, FAN ENGAGEMENT, SOCIAL MEDIA INFLUENCE
The third generation started around 2012 and is often associated with K-pop’s global breakthrough and unprecedented international success. This era saw mega-fandoms, massive global tours, international chart rankings, and groups breaking into the Western mainstream. YouTube, Twitter, and streaming platforms became essential tools for promotion.
The Big Three entertainment agencies became the Big Four when Hybe was formed as a multi-label corporation. BTS’ success enabled Big Hit to expand into Hybe, evolving into a multilabel system that now lacks a single, unified musical identity, with each label exploring distinct sounds.
Fan engagement became an interactive phenomenon. As Kiera Lowden observes, "K-pop’s success is inseparable from its ability to turn fandom into an interactive, narrative-rich ecosystem. More than just music, releases are rolled out like cinematic universes, complete with lore, cliffhangers, storylines, and physical and digital merchandise that unfold across social media platforms. Fans don’t just listen; they decode, remix, and contribute." Sites like kpopexchange.com offer a huge assortment of merchandise: hoodies, plushies, posters, light sticks, multiple versions of CDs, albums, and mini-albums and other products that drive fan engagement.
- BTS — CONQUERING THE U.S. MARKET AND SHAPING MASSIVE FANDOM
- "Dope" (2015)
The most significant international breakthrough of the third generation was BTS (Bangtan sonyeondan; lit. 'Bulletproof Boy Scouts'). Debuting in 2013 under Big Hit Entertainment, BTS quickly rose to prominence with their socially conscious lyrics, powerful performances, and strong connection with fans, known as ARMY. Although Big Hit/HYBE have maintained a songwriting/production team, several of the members, particularly RM, have been heavily involved in writing the songs and crafting the messages that have resonated with millions of fans. BTS has dealt with taboo subject matter: mental illness and the high rate of suicide among South Korean youth, systemic pressures, and political corruption.
BTS became the first K-Pop group to perform at the American Music Awards in 2017, and they have since achieved numerous milestones, including topping the Billboard Hot 100 and being nominated for Grammy Awards.
The group has been active for over a decade and has gone through several different stages in their evolution. Fortunately, the history of BTS has been documented in an excellent fan video that traces the stages of their development.
"Dope" has been described as a song championing the struggles of everyday people facing unfair social systems. The song surpassed 350 million views on YouTube in August 2018. On November 20, 2017 Guinness World Records revealed that BTS had earned a spot in their 2018 edition for "having the world's most Twitter engagements for a music group". That December, they were revealed to be the most tweeted about celebrity in 2017, being "liked or retweeted over half a billion times (502 million)" worldwide, more than Trump and Justin Bieber combined. BTS's achievements led the group to be ranked number one on Forbes Korea Power Celebrity list for 2018, a list ranking South Korea's most powerful and influential celebrities. ["BTS" Wikipedia]
- EXO
- "Call Me Baby" (2015)
EXO, which debuted in 2012 under SM Entertainment, was initially divided into two subunits: EXO-K and EXO-M, targeting the Korean and Chinese markets, respectively. EXO became a massive success in both markets, particularly in China, where they dominated music charts and received numerous awards. Their 2015 album EXODUS became the best-selling album in Korea since 2001, further cementing their status as one of the top 3rd generation K-Pop groups. [https://www.kpop.exchange]
- RED VELVET — MIXING CUTE AND MATURE
- "Russian Roulette" (2016)
Red Velvet is a South Korean girl group formed and managed by SM Entertainment. They debuted with the single "Happiness," the second-most viewed K-pop music video worldwide in August 2014. Red Velvet became the first K-Pop girl group to chart a debut single on the Billboard World Digital Songs chart, where it peaked at number four.The group's name represents the two sides of their music. The "red" side is bright, vivid, and pop-oriented ("Ice Cream Cake" (2015)), akin to "cuteness" girl groups. The "velvet" side is elegant and mature, influenced by R&B ("Psycho" (2020)), and more representative of the self-confidence and moodiness of "girl crush" bands. Red Velvet is unusual in that its fan based is predominantly female due partly to this versatility that embraces both fun and seriousness. The idols are also fashion and lifestyle models for their female fans, and their songs and interviews position them as supportive of feminism, making them relatable to young women in the United States.
The lyrics of "Russian Roulette" (2016) compare the process of winning someone's affection to a game of Russian roulette. The song is the first to mix the "red" and "velvet" styles in a video directed by Shin Hee-won. The perky electro-pop music and cute outfits of the girls contrast with the increasingly violent scenes, as the group members reenact violent clips from the fictional cartoon show Itchy & Scratchy.
- BLACKPINK — HIGH ENERGY INTERNATIONAL GIRL GROUPS
- "How You Like That" (2020)
BLACKPINK, a girl group under YG Entertainment that debuted in 2016, quickly became a global sensation with their catchy songs and high-energy performances. They became the first K-Pop girl group to perform at the Coachella music festival, in 2019, and their music videos consistently broke records on YouTube for the most views in 24 hours. BLACKPINK's international appeal is evident in their collaborations with Western artists like Dua Lipa and Selena Gomez. [https://www.kpop.exchange]
FOURTH/FIFTH GENERATION 2022/current
Shift away from agency-specific styles
As K-pop has grown, so have the ambitions of the industry’s main players: YG, JYP, SM, and outlier turned industry-leading giant Big Hit (renamed HYBE).
The 4th Generation marked a major structural transformation as HYBE emerged as the leading powerhouse. This period demonstrated a shift from artist-centered branding to a conglomerate-driven system integrating multiple sub-labels. SM and JYP maintained stable contributions, but their dominance was increasingly overshadowed by HYBE’s multi-label strategy. In the current 5th Generation, HYBE remains the dominant force. The company’s leadership reflects the consolidation of K-pop power within a corporate ecosystem encompassing labels such as Big Hit Music, ADOR, BELIFT, and Pledis. [Imogen Law, "Evolution of K-Pop Generations and Shifts in Corporate Dominance" 2025.d
“Today, K-pop agencies no longer have a single defining style as they did in the 2010s,” said an anonymous official from one of the Big Three agencies. “While major agencies have developed music that appeals broadly to global audiences, the distinct ‘K-pop essence’ that once characterized each company has somewhat faded.” [Kim Jae-heun, "Your Idols' Style by Agency," The Korea Herald, 2024]
SM has also partnered with various American companies since 2022. SM partnered with Warner Records to manage the music distribution and marketing promotions for aespa in the U.S. and global markets; with Sony Music's RCA Records to manage and promote RIIZE from Day 1 of the group's rollout; and with Capital Music Group for promotion and management of NCT 127.
STRAY KIDS — NOISE, LORE, AND FAN INVOLVEMENT
"Thunderous" (2021)
In 2017 JYP Entertainment announced a new reality survival show to launch a male idol debut project, including the show's title, Stray Kids. Eight members were chosen for the final lineup. Their debut single, "District 9," was loud, aggressive, and noisy, the opposite of the bubbly, optimistic sound that dominated K-Pop at the time. 3RACHA is the collective name of the three members who write and produce most of the group's material. They were given free rein by JYP to explore darker themes rather than feel-good songs about love and self-confidence. When the band's music was labeled as noise, Bang Chan of 3RACHA famously stated "Our music is our weapon. It's full of honesty and it's music that can break any system. So we will break it with honesty." Stray Kids gained a strong international following after performing at KCON 2018 NY and touring the U.S. the following year on the heels of one of K-Pop's most powerful songs,"Miroh," in which the idols sing and rap about the struggle to survive in the “rough jungle” of society. The aggressive choreography owes much to group leader Bang Chan's fascination with haka, the ceremonial dance of New Zealand’s Maori people, traditionally used on the battlefield or for sports.
Stray Kids have won numerous awards for their recordings and stage performances. In 2023 the prestigious International Federation of the Phonograph Industry, which represents the global recording industry, named Stray Kids as the third-best-selling artist globally that year, behind Taylor Swift and Seventeen.
Like other third-generations group, Stray Kids drew on the strategies of video games and the serialization of webtoons and K-dramas to develop their own "lore," a fictional backstory that involved the members finding keys to unlock alternate universes in order to discover their true identity. A group's lore is a unifying device that connects teaser videos, singles, and albums and increases fan involvement. Fans must follow puzzle pieces revealed in different music videos to navigate a complex universe of worlds and characters until the concept of the game is completed.
Lore is what connects the Stray Kids series of EP's from 2018 through 2020 with the 2021 NOEASY album. Together, the releases complete a process of development undertaken by the group. The music video for "Thunderous" from NOEASY is the capstone of the story, told within a tangle of metaphors and visual scenes set in modern times and in historical Korea. Years before "Thunderous" or BTS's salute to Korean history in their 2026 album ARIRANG, the short-lived boy band Topp Dogg produced a stylish, witty 2014 music video, "Arario," that blends traditional Korean instruments with modern hip-hop and electronic beats. The term "Ariario" itself is an echo of "Arariyo," the famous refrain from the iconic Korean folk song "Arirang," making it a symbol of Korean cultural pride.
Both "Thunderous" and "Arario" are replete with references to the Joseon Dynasty, Korea's great 500-year classical period: Pungmul folk music and dance, Korean lion dance, the aristocratic Hallyongmu dance, classical Korean architecture and clothing, and the Hangul writing system all celebrate Korean cultural heritage. What Stray Boys accomplished was to tie these images to a storyline that continued the group's lore, and to produce two teasers that introduced animation versions of the mischievous blue-flame dokkaebi, Korean goblins who can either help or hinder humans, and who are widely known from video games and popular culture. Dokkaebi appear in "Thunderous" as blue flashes of fire or lightning, helping band members to defeat the "Sound Monster" and the nagging critics who try to silence them.
Source: YouTubeThis screen capture from the video depicts band member Hyunjin in a Chanel accessory posed in front of posters from the 15th-century Hunminjeongeum. Sketches of figures in traditional dress mimic the style of 18th-century Korean genre paintings (Pungsokhwa), that depict everyday people, travelers, and traditional musicians, emphasizing the "heritage meets hip-hop" concept of the video. The central stylized bulletin poster simulates a Joseon-era public notice, which translates as "Gather, (all) you sorikkun," a call to action for singers of ponsori, the traditional art form that combines singing and storytelling with the Korean soribuk drum. Stray Kids also incorporate the ponsori tradition of listeners making strong rhythmic exclamations called chuimsae, such as Eolsigu! which means "Yippee!" In "Thunderous," chuimsae include the spitting sound "Ptui, Ptui, Ptui" (퉤, 퉤, 퉤) symbolizing spitting out negative comments or haters; "Ya-ho!" (야호), a traditional chuimsae to build excitement; and "Geureochi" (그렇지) translating to "That’s right!" acting as an affirming shout-out by the drummer to hype up the ponsori singer. The chuimsae in "Thunderous" are analogous to official fan chants that have become a standard way for fans to interact with K-Pop performers during concerts.
It is no wonder that a number of K-Pop songs have directly involved Korean culture. Music videos like "Thunderous" present stand-out visuals; promote Hallyu, tourism, and global influence; and lend authenticity to a group's identity. Overarching story lines presented in serial form also encourage interaction among fans. K-Pop music videos can "contribute to cross-cultural communication and understanding by simultaneously reinforcing the modern-day paradigm of being local and global. Translanguage and transcultural practices enabled by K-pop allow fans from different backgrounds to communicate and connect with one another." ["The Global K-Pop Impact"]
Stray Kids interview about "Thunderous" and NOEASY
ATEEZ — THE LATIN TINGE
- "Bad" (2026)
ATEEZ is a group formed by KQ Entertainment. In 2017 the group premiered their pre-debut web series, KQ Fellaz American Training, showcasing the eight members training in Los Angeles. ATEEZ's frontman Hongjoong is the group's main creative engine. He has been credited on nearly every release since debut, weaving ATEEZ's wild concepts into music that complements its stage presence.
The Korean press has called the group as "Global Performance Idols" and the Korean Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism touted ATEEZ as "Next Generation Leaders." The titles are not simply soft-power hype: by 2020, ATEEZ sold over eleven million physical albums worldwide, and as of July 2026, they are the group with the most top 10's on the Billboard 200 in the 2020's. And that is just a sampling of their accolades.
"Bad" Incorporating Latin pop rhythms, lyrics in Spanish, English and Korean, and K-dramas have been enormously popular in parts of Latin America since the early 2000's.
OTHER NEW IDOL GROUPS
- aespa — VIRTUAL IDOLS
- "Supernova" (2024)
aespa formed by SM Entertainment consists of four members. The group is known for popularizing the metaverse concept and hyperpop music in K-Pop. Aespa debuted in 2020, with the single and surreal music video "Black Mamba", which achieved the highest number of views in 24 hours for a K-Pop group's debut video. aespa's alternate universe is a complex sci-fi lore called the SMCU (SM Culture Universe), centered around a digital world where human members interact with their own AI-generated avatar counterparts.
Each of the four members has a virtual avatar (ae), which is not created out of thin air but derived from data continuously uploaded by each member in their daily lives, acting as their digital twins. Thus, the virtual avatars look somewhat similar to the members themselves but are slightly different. The avatars’ names are the members’ names prefixed with ae, such as ae-KARINA. If you include the virtual members, aespa could be considered to have eight members. [viverse.com, 2026]
- NEWJEANS — RETRO GIRLS NEXT DOOR
- "Super Shy" (2023)
NewJeans is a quintet formed by ADOR, one of HYBE's many sub-labels. They are known for their girl next door image and musical stylings reminiscent of the 1990s and 2000s. Several publications named NewJeans among the most prominent music acts of 2023, citing their commercial success and influence in the music, advertising, and fashion industries.
NewJeans sold 4.39 million album copies, the most-ever for a K-pop female artist in a single year, and broke the Guinness World Record for the fastest K-pop act to reach one billion streams on Spotify. Their image and music are consistently described as soft, sleek, fresh, and carefree, shifting away from harsh electronic sounds and "high-octane aesthetic" of their peers, and influencing the "easy listening" sound of boy groups like Riize.
- CORTIS
- "Go!" Dance Rehearsal (2025)
Dance practice videos began among second-generation idol groups as a means of fostering a feeling of personal and direct connection with fans. Here the idols are dressed casually in day-to-day street clothes and sneakers, occasionally shouting energetically as they perfectly execute an intricate and athletic dance routine in a bare studio. Afterwards, the camera keeps filming as the boys react by collapsing on the floor or engaging in hijinks and mugging for the camera, familiar and direct, not distanced by the formality of a stage performance or highly edited music videos.
- CORTIS
- "Go!" Music Video (2025)
Prior to the formation of Cortis, most of the members had prior experience in entertainment, modeling, or music. CORTIS debuted in 2025 with "What You Want" and they went global with the English version featuring popular American rapper/singer-songwriter Teezo Touchdown. Their debut EP, Color Outside the Lines, sold over 436,000 copies in its first week, the highest initial sales for a 2025 rookie group and fourth highest in K-pop history.
Their pre-release song, "GO!," is an addictive hip-hop and pop track featuring "minimal trap beats and sharp synths layers," according to an official description. "GO!" garnered 1.2 million views in the first day of its release. "Their popularity skyrocketed even further when they finally debuted with the title track, 'What You Want,' a retro psychedelic rock, hip-hop song that centers on teenage frustration at not being listened to or taken seriously." The group members came up with their the music video concepts for 'GO!' and What You Want,' co-directing with the production collective IDIOTS. For the self-directed "Lullaby," CORTIS taped a mobile phone directly to a Coca-Cola can to capture a specific, low-angle frame. [Laura Sirikul, "How CORTIS Is Redefining K-pop for Their Generation," Forbes, 2025]
- RIIZE
- "Get A Guitar" (2023)
- "Boom Boom Bass" (2024)
RIIZE is a six-member boy band formed by SM Entertainment. They debuted in 2023. with their single album Get a Guitar sold over a million copies in the first week of its release. The group engages in what are now routine publicity activities to cater to fans: publishing a web novel and undertaking a fan-con tour, producing vlogs, video shorts and candid photos on Instagram and TikTok.
"Get a Guitar" and "Boom Boom Bass" are atypical for K-Pop, as both songs focus on the sounds of electric guitar and bass guitar. The rock vibe with a heavy dose of funk is also uncharacteristic in the sound world of K-Pop, which is more oriented toward electronic genres, from EDM and electropop. Unison dance sequences are in the perfect synchronicity familiar to K-Pop, but the verve and ease with which the boys execute the twisting, bouncy choreography is fresh and exhilarating, befitting the groovy swinging rhythms. Also remarkable is the music video editing and use of unexpected special effects.
RESOURCES
REFERENCES
Euny Hong, The Birth of Korean Cool: How One Nation is Conquering the World through Pop Culture, Picador, New York, 2014.
John Lie, K-Pop: Popular Music, Cultural Amnesia, and Economic Innovation in South Korea, University of California Press, 2015.
Mark James Russell, K-Pop Now! The Korean Music Revolution, Tuttle Publishing, 2015.
Mark James Russell, Pop Goes Korea: Behind the Revolution in Movies, Music, and Internet Culture, Stone Bridge Press, Berkeley, CA, 2008.
Eun-Young Jung, "Transnational Migrations and YouTube Sensations: Korean Americans, Popular Music, and Social Media," Ethnomusicology, 58:1 (Winter 2014), 54-82. Available on JSTOR
Choe Sang-Hun & Mark Russell, "Bringing KPop to the West," The New York Times, March, 2012.
Aja Romano, "How K-pop Became a Global Phenomenon," Vox, February 2018.
Michael Fuhr, Globalization and Popular Music in South Korea: Sounding Out K-Pop, Routledge, 2017
Jon Caramanica, "Getting Rowdy: Keith Ape and Real Rap in Korea," New York Times, August 13, 2015]
Sun Jung, Korean Masculinities and Transcultural Consumption, Hong Kong University Press, 2011
GROUP TOPICS
RAP AND HIP HOP CULTURE IN SOUTH KOREA
K-POP FANDOM: K-CON, FAN-CENTRIC EVENTS AND PARASOCIAL RELATIONSHIPSKPOP DEMON HUNTERS, VIRTUAL IDOLS, AND THE FUTURE OF K-POP
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