Sacred Texts from China
by Michael Hsu
The sacred texts shown in this gallery reflected the religious pluralism that existed in China under different dynasties, leadership, and control. The religions that communities in China practiced can be understood through some of the sacred texts (or scripture) that were used. As with many things that were written down, these sacred texts were mostly written in scrolls or manuscripts. However, there were some texts that were written using traditional Chinese woodblock method, including the book Illustrated Life of Jesus in Chinese shown in this gallery. The use of Chinese wooden block used to produce texts like this tells us how many communities in China integrated their culture and practices with the religion that they practiced. Another example is the 17th Century Chinese Qu'ran. The Islamic calligraphy combines with Chinese style and symbols. Having said that, not all texts were written in Chinese. Other sacred texts in China were written in languages not native to China.
One of the main ways that these texts ended up in China was through the Silk Road. The Silk Road was an important trading route that existed from the second century to around the 15th century and connected regions from southern and eastern Europe to southeast and east Asia. (6) In the Silk Road, goods were not only traded, but ideas were exchanged. Because of the openness to trading and exchanging goods and ideas, it exposed Chinese communities to different religions. The texts shown in the gallery that were directly influenced by the Silk Road were the The Ashem Vohu and the Chinese Buddha Sutra on Indigo-Dyed Paper. The Ashem Vohu manuscript represented the Sogdian community who resided near the Silk Road outpost city of Dunhuang, located in western China. (5) Due to the influence of the Kushans in central and south Asia, Buddhism began spreading throughout China in the mid-first century to mid-third century CE. (7)
Christianity was practiced as early as the 450s with the Nestorian Church, but the branch of Christianity represented in the Illustrated Life of Jesus in Chinese was the Catholic Church and more specifically, the Jesuits, who were involved in evangelistic efforts China in the 16th century. (2) Judaism first appeared in the Tang Dynasty (618 CE - 907 CE) through the movement of Jewish and Radhanites (who were of Russian origin) traders too China, but the Kaifeng community was not founded until the period of the Song Dynasty (960-1279). (3) The Kaifeng Toral Scroll was used until the 18th century, the same time that the Kaifeng community began to decline as an active community. Islam came into connection with China around 638 during the Persian conquest by the Tang dynasty. (4) Due to the rise of Islamic empires and wars fought, followers of Mohammad settled in different parts of China, which contributed to the spread across China. Although the specific community was unknown, the 17th Century Qu'ran represented one of Mohammadian community in China.
These sacred texts represent some of the most followed religions in the world today and reflect the diverse religious communities in China. In this gallery, Abrahamic and East Asian religions are represented. All of these texts are held in public domain by the British Library. The British Library possesses a large collection of material objects, and many of the collection items, including the sacred texts in the gallery, were brought from regions outside from Britain and held in museums such as the British Library. Not only has the location of the object changed, but the culture, imagination and perception of these products have changed as well. This change of location also raises questions whether or not there are physical and location boundaries of material objects and how far they can be transported away from their origin or culture. The transition of these sacred texts to an object went into effect after they were placed under the control of Western museums.
These sacred texts from China perfectly suit a Western audience's gaze, as they are material objects that can be looked at visually. A few of the texts were taken and brought to Britain by explorer Aurel Stein. Stein eventually gave the objects he brought back to the British Library. Westerners believed that sight is the “highest” form of senses within a senses hierarchy, while the other senses, such as smell, touch, and taste were associated with the lower sense. (1) While we don’t know everything about the day to day use of these texts, we do have some idea about the process of creating these texts. The sense of touch may have been an important sense that was involved in the creation of these sacred texts. It led to people “seeing” and visualizing the texts. In addition, the holding of foreign objects in Western museums reminds us of a debate of the ethical nature of taking foreign collections away from its location of origin. According to Classen and Howes, collecting is a “form of conquest” and “conquered artifacts” are like to conquered people. This process is the effect of colonialism. Others may not view it the same way. Regardless, the collection of Eastern artifacts in Western museums will continue to provoke debate and conversation, particularly topics regarding power dynamics that involve the “parties”.
For museum goers, these scrolls and manuscripts are more likely viewed as simply objects for viewing pleasure. However, for readers of these scrolls and manuscripts, they are viewed as scripture, because the content of the scrolls and manuscripts have divine meanings to readers. Major religions have a sacred text that guides and informs people about the divine and the meaning of life. It also serves as part of people’s object of worship. In this exhibit, you will find the sacred texts from major religions that made up different communities in China.
1. The Museum as Sensescape.” Sensible Objects: Colonialism, Museums, and Material Culture, by Constance Classen and David Howes, Berg, 2006, pp. 199–222.
2. Hughes, K, and E.R. Hughes. “Christianity in China.” Essay. In Religion in China, 110–28. London: Routledge, 2005.
3. Malek, Roman. Essay. In From Kaifeng to Shanghai Jews in China, 45–80. Sankt Augustin: Taylor and Francis, 2000.
4. Hughes, K, and E.R. Hughes. “Mohammedanism .” Essay. In Religion in China, 98–109. London: Routledge, 2005.
5. “Zoroastrian Prayer, the Ashem Vohu.” The British Library. The British Library, January 16, 2015. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/zoroastrian-prayer.
6. National Geographic Society. “The Silk Road.” National Geographic Society, July 22, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/silk-road/.
6. Liu, Xinru. “The Kushan Empire and Buddhism.” Essay. In The Silk Road in World History, 42–61. Oxford University Press, 2010.
Christianity was practiced as early as the 450s with the Nestorian Church, but the branch of Christianity represented in the Illustrated Life of Jesus in Chinese was the Catholic Church and more specifically, the Jesuits, who were involved in evangelistic efforts China in the 16th century. (2) Judaism first appeared in the Tang Dynasty (618 CE - 907 CE) through the movement of Jewish and Radhanites (who were of Russian origin) traders too China, but the Kaifeng community was not founded until the period of the Song Dynasty (960-1279). (3) The Kaifeng Toral Scroll was used until the 18th century, the same time that the Kaifeng community began to decline as an active community. Islam came into connection with China around 638 during the Persian conquest by the Tang dynasty. (4) Due to the rise of Islamic empires and wars fought, followers of Mohammad settled in different parts of China, which contributed to the spread across China. Although the specific community was unknown, the 17th Century Qu'ran represented one of Mohammadian community in China.
These sacred texts represent some of the most followed religions in the world today and reflect the diverse religious communities in China. In this gallery, Abrahamic and East Asian religions are represented. All of these texts are held in public domain by the British Library. The British Library possesses a large collection of material objects, and many of the collection items, including the sacred texts in the gallery, were brought from regions outside from Britain and held in museums such as the British Library. Not only has the location of the object changed, but the culture, imagination and perception of these products have changed as well. This change of location also raises questions whether or not there are physical and location boundaries of material objects and how far they can be transported away from their origin or culture. The transition of these sacred texts to an object went into effect after they were placed under the control of Western museums.
These sacred texts from China perfectly suit a Western audience's gaze, as they are material objects that can be looked at visually. A few of the texts were taken and brought to Britain by explorer Aurel Stein. Stein eventually gave the objects he brought back to the British Library. Westerners believed that sight is the “highest” form of senses within a senses hierarchy, while the other senses, such as smell, touch, and taste were associated with the lower sense. (1) While we don’t know everything about the day to day use of these texts, we do have some idea about the process of creating these texts. The sense of touch may have been an important sense that was involved in the creation of these sacred texts. It led to people “seeing” and visualizing the texts. In addition, the holding of foreign objects in Western museums reminds us of a debate of the ethical nature of taking foreign collections away from its location of origin. According to Classen and Howes, collecting is a “form of conquest” and “conquered artifacts” are like to conquered people. This process is the effect of colonialism. Others may not view it the same way. Regardless, the collection of Eastern artifacts in Western museums will continue to provoke debate and conversation, particularly topics regarding power dynamics that involve the “parties”.
For museum goers, these scrolls and manuscripts are more likely viewed as simply objects for viewing pleasure. However, for readers of these scrolls and manuscripts, they are viewed as scripture, because the content of the scrolls and manuscripts have divine meanings to readers. Major religions have a sacred text that guides and informs people about the divine and the meaning of life. It also serves as part of people’s object of worship. In this exhibit, you will find the sacred texts from major religions that made up different communities in China.
1. The Museum as Sensescape.” Sensible Objects: Colonialism, Museums, and Material Culture, by Constance Classen and David Howes, Berg, 2006, pp. 199–222.
2. Hughes, K, and E.R. Hughes. “Christianity in China.” Essay. In Religion in China, 110–28. London: Routledge, 2005.
3. Malek, Roman. Essay. In From Kaifeng to Shanghai Jews in China, 45–80. Sankt Augustin: Taylor and Francis, 2000.
4. Hughes, K, and E.R. Hughes. “Mohammedanism .” Essay. In Religion in China, 98–109. London: Routledge, 2005.
5. “Zoroastrian Prayer, the Ashem Vohu.” The British Library. The British Library, January 16, 2015. https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/zoroastrian-prayer.
6. National Geographic Society. “The Silk Road.” National Geographic Society, July 22, 2019. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/silk-road/.
6. Liu, Xinru. “The Kushan Empire and Buddhism.” Essay. In The Silk Road in World History, 42–61. Oxford University Press, 2010.
