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“The Communist Manifesto” presented an analytical approach to the class struggle, the problems of capitalism, and the capitalist mode of production, rather than a prediction of communism’s potential future forms (Joseph, 2006). The communist manifesto is divided into four sections. The manifesto begins by proclaiming “a spectre is haunting Europe – the spectre of Communism. All the powers of old Europe have entered into a holy alliance to exorcise this spectre.” (Marx, Engels, & Pozner, 1992, p. 16). The first section, “Bourgeois and Proletarians” examines class struggle and the development of societies through conflict. Marx asserts, “the history of all hitherto existing society is the history of class struggles” (Marx et al., 1992, p. 17). Marx goes on to write “what the bourgeoisie therefore produces, above all, are its own grave-diggers. Its fall and the victory of the proletariat are equally inevitable.” (Marx et al., 1992, p. 32). The second section, “Proletarians and Communists” begins by stating the relationship of communists around the world and the need to defend the common interests of the world’s proletariat. The sections end by outlining a set of short-term demands such as the “abolition of inheritances and private property; free public education; nationalization of the means of transport and communication; centralization of credit via a national bank – the implementation of which would result in the precursor to a stateless and classless society” (The Communist Manifesto, 2017). Marx sums this section up by saying, “in place of the old bourgeois society, with its classes and class antagonisms, we shall have an association, in which the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all.” (Marx et al., 1992, p. 43). The third section, “Socialist and Communist Literature” distinguishes communism from other socialist doctrines such as reactionary socialism, bourgeois socialism, and critical-utopian socialism (Marx et al., 1992). All these are dismissed for advocating reformism and failing to recognize the pre-eminent revolutionary role of the working class (The Communist Manifesto, 2017). The concluding section, “Position of the Communists in Relation to the Various Opposition Parities” discusses the communist position on struggles in specific countries such as France, Switzerland, Poland, and Germany (Marx et al., 1992). It ends by declaring support for other communist revolutions and calls for united international proletarian action. Marx concludes his manifesto by declaring, “let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Working Men of All Countries, Unite!” (Marx et al., 1992, p. 58).
