The Life of Robert Guiscard
However, Robert's control of Melfi was just the beginning. Through military might and political savvy, the realm of Robert Guiscard continued to grow. His employment with the Lombards had turned into wars against them. Eventually, the expansion of the Normans resulted in the Holy Roman Empire, the Pope, and the Byzantine Empire attempted to subdue the Normans through a series of wars. However, Robert won them all, eventually becoming the Duke of Apulia and Calabria in 1057 CE. He continued his campaigns into the island of Sicily, conquering the city of Palermo from the local Berber taifas (princedoms) in the region. In short, Robert's time in Italy was truly profound, turning his Norman brothers-in-arms from mercenaries for local rulers to rulers of Southern Italy and Sicily by the 12th century.