"Again, no private person shall be permitted to make anything out of gold and jewels, which is reserved for imperial use and adornment (with the exception of ornaments usually worn by women, and the rings of both sexes), and no one shall be allowed to manufacture anything of this kind under the color or pretext of making a present of the same to the Emperor, for he does not expect it, nor does the reverence due to royalty required such donations by private individuals... Imperial ornaments must be made in the palace, by the artificers attached to the same, and not indiscriminately in private residences or workshops."                                
                                                                                                        ----The Enactment of Justinian

Though the old Republic of Rome might have condemned luxury art, official opinions about luxury art changed in the following Byzantine era. Pictured below in an early Byzantine mosaic, the personification of generous donation and foundation is a woman wearing a variety of luxury jewelries. Under the Byzantines, luxury art was regarded as a gift and sign from the divine Christian God of the elite status of rulers. What's more, because gems and other luxuries visually signposted who was elite, the import and export of luxury and precious materials was strictly regulated.
 
Composed of precious sapphires, amethysts, emeralds, and pearls, this necklace is truly a “luxury art." Precious gems symbolized the identities of the elite. It is no wonder that the Emperor Justinian I wished to have such precious materials reserved for the imperial use. However, it seemed that not all kinds of luxury objects composed of precious stones were restricted since the emperor clearly indicated "with exception of ornaments usually worn by women, and rings of both sexes" in the law code. What's more, the production of adornment for imperial use seems to be also restricted in the palace. Therefore, this necklace made in Cyprus, though luxurious with many precious stones, might be made for a patron of affluent background but not necessarily women of royalty.




Interestingly, this necklace was found at a tomb in Thebes, Egypt, where under the Byzantine rule had a mixture of Egyptian and Greek population. Prominent in Egypt of that time was the flat mummy portrait that depicted the deceased. And here features a mummy portrait of a woman wearing golden earrings and necklace made of gold, emeralds, and purple amethyst. The woman might have come from the Mediterranean aristocracy who came to control Egypt that time. Therefore, the Byzantine necklace in front of you might also be a witness of human mobility within the Byzantine Empire.

Junyi Wu, College of the Holy Cross, Class of 2026