Research: Stigma
Fear and anticipation of stigmatizing attitudes and labels make it difficult for survivors of sex trafficking to seek rehabilitation services (Gjermeni et al., 2008; Macy & Johns, 2011), reintegrate with their families and communities after exiting (Chung, 2009; Crawford & Kaufman, 2008; Vijeyarasa, 2010), and doubt their ability to exit trafficking (Baker, Dalla, & Williamson, 2010).
Miller, Canales, Amacker, Backstrom, and Gidycz (2011) found that fear of negative reactions from others (blame, disrespect, shame, and humiliation) impacted whether one engaged in avoidance coping after sexual victimization and/or re-victimization. They found that those who did not disclose due to stigma threat were more likely to be re-victimized. Additionally, how individuals cope with stigma has important implications on physical and mental health (Benoit & Millar, 2001; Day & Ward, 2007).
Certain factors, such as age, race, and gender place ethnic minority women and children at higher risk for stigmatizing attitudes and labels. These stigmatizing attitudes not only make certain individuals susceptible to trafficking, but also suggest that those who are trafficked carry pre-existing labels and stereotypes (e.g., victim of childhood sexual abuse) that further push them into the trafficking culture.
Works Cited
Baker, L. M., Dalla, R. L., & Williamson, C. (2010). Exiting prostitution: An integrated model. Violence Against Women, 16(5), 579-600.
Benoit, C., & Miller, A.E. (2001). Dispelling myths and understanding realities: Working conditions, health status, and exiting experiences of sex workers: Short Report. Department of Sociology, University of Victoria.
Chung, R. C. (2009). Cultural perspectives on child trafficking, human rights & social justice: A model for psychologists. Counseling Psychology Quarterly, 22(1), 85-96.
Crawford, M., & Kaufman, M. R. (2008). Sex trafficking in Nepal: Survivor characteristics and long-term outcomes. Violence Against Women, 14(8), 905-916.
Day, S., & Ward, H. (2007). British policy makes sex workers vulnerable. British Medical Journal, 334(7586), 187.
Gibson, L. E. & Leitenberg, H. (2001). The impact of child sexual abuse and stigma on methods of coping with sexual assault among undergraduate women. Child Abuse and Neglect, 25, 1343-1361.
Gjermeni, E., Van Hook, M. P., Gjipali, S., Xhillari, L., Lungu, F., & Hazizi, A. (2008). Trafficking of children in Albania: Patterns of recruitment and reintegration. Child Abuse & Neglect, 32(10), 941-948.
Kong, T. S. K. (2006). What it feels like for a whore: The body politics of women performing erotic labour in Hong Kong. Gender, Work, and Organization, 13(5), 409-434.
Macy, R. J., & Johns, N. (2011). Aftercare services for international sex trafficking survivors: Informing US service and program development in an emerging practice area. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, 12(2), 87-98.
Miller, A. K., Canales, E. J. Aacker, A. M., Bacstrom, T.L., & Gidycz, C.A. (2011). Stigma-threat motivated nondisclosure of sexual assault and sexual revictimization: A prospective analysis. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 35(1), 119-128.
Tomura, M. (2009). A prostitute's lived experiences of stigma. Journal of Phenomenological Psychology, 40(1), 51-84.
Vijeyarasa, R. (2010). The state, the family, and language of 'social evils': Restigmatising victims of trafficking in Vietnam. Culture, Health, & Sexuality, 12, 89-102.
Wong, W. C. W., Holroyd, E., & Bingham, A. (2011). Stigma and sex work from the perspective of female sex workers in Hong Kong. Sociology of Health & Illness, 33(1), 50-65.