Chapter 3: Representation of black women on Drum magazine
Chapter 3: Evolution of Drum magazine
Drum magazines have archived great success over last 60 years in the publishing industry and the publication has contributed immensely to the construction of black identity in South Africa. This chapter will explore the origins of the publication with a brief history from its inception in the early 1950s to what the magazine has come to post 1994 apartheid, South Africa. This chapter will also analyse the covers which feature women in particular, on the magazine featured in the 1950s, as a means to portray women in stereotypical positions, based on the ideologies that surround the cover and society in that era.The history of Drum spans over 60 years, with a circulation of 40 000 by the late 1960’s, the publication was founded during a time of major political and social changes that ensured that the country remained segregated by race which was enforced by those in power. In 1951 the first edition of Drum magazine was released which was founded by Bob Crisp with the original title The African Drum. The look and feel of the magazine did not reflect the emerging group of black men and women living in Johannesburg, instead, it covered articles that relate to the ecology and agriculture as well as documenting music from the African tribal genre and folk tales. The publication hardly included the evolution of urbanisation that was emerging in many of the black communities.
As the publication began to re-brand itself, it change was met with challenges, “at the centre of Drum’s African urbanity was ongoing tension, between a progressive, positive, ‘modern' urban existence and attendant fear of the moral and social breakdown in the apartheid city (Johnson 2009:37).The founder Jim Bailey, editors Anthony Sampson & Bob Crisp were facing financial problems because of the lack of appeal from the black readers. In 1952 the editorial team was changed to include journalist such as Henry Nxumalo and Anthony Sampson, who worked together to revamp the design, aesthetics and content to fit in with what the markets demand. One of the changes that followed the magazine was to emulate an African American culture, which was seen as being more contemporary, the decision was supported by the African advisory board to assist with the transition.
As one of the journalists, Nxumalo took the position of the sports editor but he still continued to cover investigative journalistic stories for the magazine, as a way to make people aware of the social and political activities brewing in the country. One of the ways to do this was to include more and more black writers, which was in line with the change the magazine was facing. Popular Musicians such as Todd Matshikiza contributed any reports relating to music and fiction, author Cab Themba created opinion pieces when he joined the magazine in 1953. In the early years, the publication was only in circulation in South Africa, where the major focus was on Johannesburg, and then moved to covering the rest of the African continent. Initially, the magazine was not concerned with anything that centred on the political climate of the time, however, the writers could not deny the injustices that were occurring around them and thus the writers saw it futile to deny the readers information that was affected by the political issues. With the overwhelming coverage of political turmoil being depicted in the magazine, one could not ignore its presences and ultimately it became a vital canon for resistance. With a fear of the rising increases of mobilisation by the people, the publication was seen as a threat and banned by the state between the years 1965 and 1968. The drum is still in monthly circulation today, but the direction has completely changed.
The drum was a publication that aimed to fit in and represent the emerging urban youth culture of the black community in and around Johannesburg era and the “articles in 1950s Drum are frequently treated as documents of Johannesburg culture (and the culture of the township of Sophiatown in particular)” (Rauwerda 2007:394). The Drum team of writers and the readers who consumed its content were very literate and had some form of education and became popular for its writing/ ‘township’ style culture. They found the United States of America very interesting and were not willing to read about anything that depicted the South African village life. This obsession with the urban culture of America was reflected in the writing style depicted in publication, especially in the linguistic style and mannerism of Matshikiza, whose style “can be seen to have influenced the manner and idiom of several of Drum’s investigative reports and opinion pieces" (Chapman 1989:188). As a composer, the way Matshikiza approached the typewriter was like a piano.
The 1950s was a time of drastic change for South Africa as well as Johannesburg, as more and more people flocked to the economic hub of the city, a modernisation of thought processes occurred and this is reflected in the reader’s opinions of the publication. The inhabitants of the city were people who used to reside in the rural parts of the country, and they were overwhelmed by the city. This is reflected by how they dressed and conducted themselves, which indicates an acceptance of modernity. It should be noted that this study regards Drum as a textual space because "it had a complicated relationship with reality- both reflected and recreated African urban existence in its pages giving a particular view of the townships and African modernity"(Johnson 2009-38). This study does not aim to uncover the real lives of young black men and women, rather investigate how an ideological system such as patriarchy is emphasised as a way to dictate how society should be like, on their cover and ultimately affects black identity and modernity.
The public first encounter with urban life was overwhelming and the environment had a major influence on their identity. The 1950s was an era that the National Party consolidated its victory and enforced many acts, which included the Group Areas Act to restrict movement and the Bantu Education Act of an unequal education system, with greater coercion on the black community with “increased political, social and racial segregation” (Lodge 1983:23). Despite the drastic laws that saw the removal of people from areas like Sophiatown and District Six, there was an increase of hang out spots bars in the township called shebeens and became popular. Although the political climate impacted negatively within the black community, there was a still an atmosphere of positivity and hope which could be seen depicted in the Drum pages. According to Johnson (2009:37) “at the centre of Drum’s African urbanity was an ongoing tension, between a progressive, positive, modern urban existence and attendant fear of moral and social breakdown in the Apartheid city”. This illustrates that although the country was experiencing increased chaos, Drum still managed to include the truly experienced realities of the time and also plant a seed of hope.
Drum did not manage to change the situation of that time, but its use as a social indicator cannot be overstated and it is “reflected and recreated African urban existence in its pages giving a particular view of the townships and African modernity” (Johnson 2009:38). The drum was also at the centre of female representation when women migrated to the urban areas, it was hard for them to obtain security as the ratio of women to men was unbalanced and the stable household was in danger because husbands and fathers that could easily be in prison for contravening passbook laws. As a result, the 1950s saw a rise in female-headed households which at times was multigenerational. Because finding work was difficult as most jobs reserved for the female was in the textile manufacturing industry and being a domestic worker, beer brewing became another source of income. The Urbanisation proved to be a challenge to the preordained role of an African woman. African masculinity clashed with the notion that rise of women rights in the twentieth century. Johnson (2009:38) asserts that the publication has been viewed “as a cultural space in which male writers reestablished control over women, or discursively ‘disempowered’ them” as a means to maintain patriarchy especially when the apartheid system emasculated black men.
Drum cover analysis
Drum magazine centred around music, genres like jazz and the real cosmopolitan life in Johannesburg. Although their magazines cover varied in terms of the theme of the month, women still got recognition. The covers had a huge influence on music and jazz artist occasionally graced the magazine, however during the 1950s the covers which depicted women who driven by ideological and patriarchal standards. This section will analyse Drum magazine covers during the 1950s which depicted women unfavourably and aimed to legitimise patriarchy through heightened hypersexualisation positions.
The depiction of a female on the cover emanated from the fascination with depicting females with feminine imagery through images of modernization and consumerism, as well as domesticated roles. In the succession of young women represented, Johnson (2009:39), refers to two main discourses on young women and modernity that coexisted and overlapped during the 1950s and 1960s”.These discourses could be seen as positive in that they view the celebration of young females as a form of social empowerment and ultimately leads to progress and economic development. During this era men had more power over women such as voting rights and as such they asserted the power of them and women were merely seen as a form of sexual obsession. Drum’s interest in the ‘modern miss' was seen as a "challenge to Apartheid whilst remaining differentiated from Drum's depiction of adult women's formal political activism” (Johnson 2009:39). Thereafter the direction had to change with the addition of the women’s pages that featured domesticated women. Subsequently, the replacement of the ‘modern miss’ that continued to get attention was the image of the younger woman who had no obligation to get married in the 1970s. Indeed the societal standards of gender roles and the portrayal of women were carefully orchestrated in the Drum pages.
One of the critics of the publication was that of the male gaze, a large of the editorial team was male and they wrote stories and articles presented young women to the readers. According to Johnson (2009:41) this progress was highly gendered, since what “was an act of rebellion, political step towards modernity for girls and not for men”, and the debate for women in politics was not seen as ideal and large majority of decision for equality and rights remained in the hands of men. In the 1950s men were only allowed to vote and occupied jobs that were reserved for men only. Women, on the other hand, were merely seen as commodity and bearer of children, therefore it’s not surprising that Drum depicted women in a way that they were socially treated.
Even though Drum could not change the social roles of the young women, the type of fashion on the covers for example , was seen as one of the few aspects of a symbol of progressiveness and change and managed to give young women the choice to “negotiate these changing boundaries respectably” (Johnson 2009:42). in this time social and material standards emulated the western standards in which “western suits replaced cattle, wives and children as signifiers of status and wealth in towns where there was no space for large herds” (Clowes 2008:184), the depiction of black men in suits translated a message that one can achieve affluence and freedom just like their wealth counterparts.. The depiction of women did not images to make women feel empowered but the aimed to naturalised the status quo of male superiority.
Initially, in the early years, the publication had mostly male readership, which illustrates how significant Drum was used to reinforcing patriarchy. Women, who were not married, where the main topic that featured in most of the articles, short stories and frequent questions to the agony aunt seeking advice. The male voice was mostly empowered as it featured on the number of pages in the 1950s.According to Clowes (2008:187) “Drum tended to take sides with the young and urban when reporting on the challenges and tensions around the social status of older men” as well as having respect for senior men in which the structures had been in existence.
In 1984 the founder and editor of Drum sold the publication and subsequently discontinued his connection with the magazine. At the height of apartheid, South Africa experienced political instability and cultural tension between the ethnic groups within the black community. The government could no longer manage to solve the issues around the apartheid policies and decisions to release political struggle heroes and unbanning the parties was implemented in the late 1980s. The magazine continued to document the lives of the modern black community and the concept of consumerism was starting to take place, as products advertised in the magazine became a symbol of freedom, abundant choice and change in which they are removed from the shackles the previously dictated “unequal economic, political, racial and gender relations” (Bartelsen 1998:235). The evolution of celebrity tabloid began to emerge as the life of the local celebrities filled the readers with curiosity.
In following Drum magazine cover men are seen measuring and objectifying a female body that has been hypersexualized because she is dressed in minimum clothing compared to the men and allowing men to objectify over her body. The mid-twentieth century construed an identity that meant “some young men to express their manhood through the subordination of women” (Clowes 2008:185). What this image does is legitimising the female gaze of a black body; in which men are given the power over objectifying women. This also illustrates women, particularly those that live in the city, are supposed to be subservient to men and take their preordained position. The black female body is also used in a way of exoticism, making them viewed only for their body aesthetics and not for their intellectual capability.
The cover coincides with Drum’s idea of what love means in terms of global Western standards. Historically within the African custom, parents were usually the ones in charge of selecting young women for their sons to marry. Drum challenge that notion had covers of young couples sending a clear message that the choice of finding a partner lies in the hand of the young men who lived in the urban city and “made its apparent that it was a young man’ prerogative to choose a wife” (Clowes 2008:189).
The popularity of Drum in the 1950s meant that it played a key role in delivering social commentary of what of black people in and around Johannesburg think. The readers were exposed to a Western standard of living in which “the overall patterning of gender regime, together with the gender patterning of culture and personal life” (Clowes 2008:182), which deviates from the cultural norms and the order of the society at large. However, certain elements of tradition that were upheld were applicable to black males such as masculinity and patriarchy. Masculinity is not viewed in a linear structure, it is “an interplay of emotional and intellectual factors- an interplay that directly implicates women and men” (Clowes 2008:182), and these messages are transmitted in factors relating to the social class system, race and social dynamics. This June 1956 cover below (figure 2) depicts what looks like a couple sitting on the floor in dismay and uncertain of what the future holds for them. Their outfits reflect a way in which the magazine aimed to usher in a new metropolitan way of dressing, in which it made the black community resemble their white counterparts, as an acceptable way of dressing that is different from the rural setting.
The year 1956 mark important year in the South African calendar, as it marks the year in which the women’s march to the Union Buildings took place to offer their grievances to the ruling party regarding the unfair treatment of women as well as to demand equal voting rights in the society. The perception of women before the event took place was set out and men usually took the leadership role when it came to struggling for political emancipation. Therefore this particular march changed the idea of women being submissive instead women took charge of equality across the racial spectrum despite societal norms. Male privileges allowed men the right to spearhead any resistance movement and women were mainly just subordinates. This is clearly indicated by the media in general, in which they don’t have a say and will simply follow the lead of the men, however, some theorist has different views. According to Hooks (2000:3), “contemporary movement from its inception, women were not individuals who became the “stars” of the movement, who attracted the attention of mass media” and indicates that women were equally involved in the acquisition of freedom behind the scenes, however, they never got the recognition just like their male counterparts. This is a crucial distinction to how the patriarchal norms have been ingrained within the society.
The crucial point to take from this chapter is how Drum magazine content and cover are a reflection of the social times that was happening during the 1950s era. Social rights and gender equality was not yet implemented and the covers that depict women as possessions to be controlled and ignoring their intellectual abilities. Drum magazine reinforced ideological practices such as patriarchy and therefore women were also hypersexualized by the writers who were male. One should not ignore the positive influence the magazine had as being the voice of the nation, documenting both the good and bad situations in the country.
Chapter 3.2: Black hair
A critical analysis of the politics that influence black women hair choices
Hair is a woman most priced crown and glory, it is of major importance within the black community and it has been used both as a measure of status and acceptability. A black woman, in particular, has used the media as a form of guidance to communicate to the public what type hair styles they ought to have and what constitute as good hair, subsequently; these hair styles have created conflict within their own ethnic identity. Although naturally, African hair is kinky and curls up, some black women have chosen to accept the form of hair that’s perpetuated by the media. In which it has to be long, and straightened because " the symbolism of hair explores how hair is socially embedded and represented in historical black societies as well as in a contemporary society where there remain political and colonial undertones” (Marco 2012-10).Women archive such hair style by smoothing and straitening through the process of chemical alteration (relax).For a black women hair does not only play a function of a crown and glory "it is something that is laden with messages and it has the power to dictate how others treat you and in turn how you feel about yourself" (Thompson 2009:80).
This study will explore the amount of impact Drum magazine, as one of the leading publications, in influencing its black female reader's hair decision as well as trace how modernity and western standards have impacted black women self-esteem. Two of drum magazine covers from the 1950s will be analysed as the beginning of modernisation and black female hair representation. And two of drum magazine post-1994 will be investigated, in which drum continues to perpetuate western notions of good hair. Western standards have infiltrated the mainstream media, throughout the year's different hairstyle, whether it is straightened, weaved on or braided, their looks always seem to emulate that of a Caucasian hair and ultimately black women have resorted to hiding their own natural hair and not celebrate its own uniqueness.
The media that one is exposed carries out the historical message that black hair is ugly and unmanageable and social classing begin to form.This fits the description that hair is political. As a powerful tool for social construction and influence, the media ought to ensure that it depicts the reality that ultimately defines people and the world we live in. As a form of resistance to the status quo, the natural hair movement (which refers to black women in embracing their hair in its natural state) will be mentioned, as a way to illustrate black women 360-degree evolution when it comes to hair.
Post- 1994, the media has made it easier to duplicate these hair trends that Western/Eurocentric creates for the world, which ultimately gets adopted into Africa and that has resulted in many dire consequences as these hair alteration methods contains dangerous chemicals that are toxins to one's health, hair scalp and the environment. According to Cargo (2011-13) ‘hair is a representation of the blackness, the otherness itself, straightening it is putting a toe in the melting pot, coupled with skin bleaching, is an attempt to dunk oneself into the melting pot'. This quote illustrates how complex and important hair is to women of colour and altering it reveals a deeper insecurity that women have to their own hair in order to gain social acceptance.
The United States still remains the major source influence of culture and identity in South Africa, within the black community; the African Americans are copied by the African community from their way of life to their values. This has resulted in a generation that has lost their African roots and chooses to embrace that of the west. The issue of hair for the African American community is political and historical, as it has been passed on from one generation to the other. During the era of slavery hair, became a social marker as to what form of labour one ought to do, during the slavery era field slaves often required to hide their natural hair, and those that worked in the master’s house needed to wear wigs which were similar to their slave's owners. The 1960s Black power Movement saw the use of black kinky afro as a sign of power against the dominant structures that continues to oppress the black community through inequality.
Besides the media, there are other elements that influence what hair choice one should have, in this case, the role of modernity is linked to how you look and that includes how your hair looks like. Women are told stories from older women in their families how their hair created a limitation to what life direction they took which include certain careers. From enslavement in the United State to the colonisation in Africa, their experience can influence how young women today perceive themselves, and how they want to be perceived differently from the women who are of a different generation in their families. These illustrate the obsession over hair women of this present era are “a generation that had heard stories of personal enslavement and they were eager to dissociate themselves from the slave class" (Hargo 201:14), hair is indeed a constant battle for women of colour and the media reinforces anxiety within the community.
Although men do take notice of how their own hair looks, however, there are not judged heavily by their hair, but rather through their clothing or skin colour. Hair for black women is both political and personal as their decision are governed by other people idea of what suitable hair should look like. Colonisation had a major impact in how black women value and identify with themselves, in the early Apartheid years; coloured and black people were required to undergo a pencil test to determine what race they fall under. It was believed people with naturally straight hair and fair skin were referred to as beautiful and acceptable by their European counterpart because “when European explorers traveled to many countries in Africa, they sketched and described black people are savages and uncivilised to other European peoples” (Nimocks 2015:170) This subsequently affected the confidence of black people and over the years this lack of appreciation of their own aesthetic infiltrated through the generations that followed. This can be further illustrated from the experience of Hargo (2011:11), a young black woman whose journey to self-hair appreciation is explained in this quote: “I distinctly remember the time-consuming experience of pressing my hair as a youth, my hair would often be washed, parted and plaited while damp one day and pressed the next, before washing and pressing, I had to wear a baseball cap to school to cover up my unpressed hair.
This quote aims to expose the reader to the daily experience that young black women are subjected to. Although all young girls from various racial backgrounds are taught from a young age how to manage their hair from female guardians, its, however, different when it comes to black women, as their hair decisions often have a historical element which is further perpetuated by magazine covers and this will be illustrated in the chapter.
The focus of this chapter is to expose the reader to the everyday experience that women of colour are subjected to when it comes to how their hair looks like. Magazine covers plays a huge role in guiding women to their ideal hair choices, from watching an adult in a familiar(in this instance it would be a mother figure) to playing with dolls that resemble a Caucasian woman and ultimately these influences cloud their judgment. According to (Thompson 2009:836) "black hair no longer carries the same socio-cultural significance it did decades and centuries past " and in the present day natural hair seems unwanted and needed fixing and this can be seen in other spheres of life such as the workplace. The beauty standards depicted on magazine covers, in general, are used as a way to transmit the non-verbal message of social status. These images end up in the glossy pages and covers of magazine covers are seen as a social marker, women will go to great length to achieve that look and gain social acceptance.
For some people having a relaxer is seen as a right of passage, in which young girls are now entering a different life stage (young adult) and in some cases, young girl child are prepared years before it will happen. The Chemical relaxer product should be used be reapplied to the scalp every four to six week, as new hair growth emerges it can present problems because of the vast difference in the hair that has been treated to the one that's kinky in nature. This process can be dangerous as it can cause "painful chemical burns to the scalp" Hargo (2011-12). For years women were not aware of the dangerous effects the products used to straighten once hair are as mentioned previously, thus the end results of these harsh treatments is the residing hairline some women encounter.
The Drum magazine cover below is taken from the March 1956, which depicts a black woman with her hair in her natural state. And the black female readers related with the female model. Initially, the magazine lacked of exposure of other ways to alter one's hair appearance, as the years went by, the publication took a different direction and embraced the news ideas of good hair from the west.
Drum magazine started in an era where there were not too many publications that depicted the lives of the black South African people. The founder of the magazine had a lot of experience in the publication industry overseas so it’s not a surprise that it would mimic it’s white magazine counterpart. With this specific cover, a young lady is seen pouring an alcoholic beverage into a glass in what looks like a shebeen in the township, which is a typical setting within black communities. The female model illustrated is seen with her natural kinky hair which indicates that she embraces her identity and is at peace with her aesthetic. This era is seen by most south Africans as an era which the impact of Americanisation was not as intense as it is in the present day, however, the change in aesthetic was slowly beginning to take place. Having women of colour with her natural kinky hair might not have been popular in the 1990’s, as modernisation dictated that covering black natural hair is ideal. As well as the constant battle to be similar to their white counterpart. From how the stories that were orchestrated to the advertisements placed next to them, "Drum advertisements seem to offer opportunities to black South Africans under the apartheid even while they espouse the benefits of whiteness", (Rauwerda 2007:395) and ultimately mould black identity.
The 1957 April cover of drum magazine in which a locally famous musician Dolly Radebe can be regarded as aesthetically appealing, in regards to the standards of beauty. From the layout, dressing and styling, this cover encompasses the qualities of an outstanding magazine cover. However one cannot ignore the influence of modernisation. This saw as the start in which black identity construction began to infiltrate mainstream media. Although the bright yellow colours communicate a sense of hope and vibrancy during a difficult time in the country, however, her hair has been changed to suit that of the white counterpart’s standards. Straight hair, sharp nose and brown fair skin tone, this cover is a clear indication of the beginning of the “Eurocentric beauty standards of straight, long and flowing hair had a socio-cultural affect on black women notions of physical attractiveness (Thompson 2009:832).Ultimately young woman sense of self-worth, level of courtship and careers endeavours can be influenced by what they think of their hair and it will have an impact on their identity in relation to others.
Women in the 20th and 21st century have a wide range of choices when it comes to hair styles, the different techniques and methods offered allows women the choice to alter their image, however, this study suggests that hair is very politically inclined. With regards to the discussion of politics and the history of South Africa, the broader themes of race and class classification cannot be ignored within the notions of the standards of beauty, particularly to black hair. As mentioned earlier, Eurocentric standards of good hair straight and long hair is connected to political past, and the “remnants have impacted on and are still impacting on black women's psyches and perceptions towards ideas of beauty and ideals" (Marco 2012:53). As a result, the past structures affect the upbringing norm which informs self-representations.
Drum magazine, has the leading publication that celebrates and highlight black culture, still remain the main source social constructs particularly when it relates to beauty. In one of their present issue, a cover from June 2012 cover, is an indication that although the “political structures such as colonialism and apartheid may be gone, but manifestations of its rule continue to function in more contemporary social spaces “ (Marco 2012-56).The cover features a local TV personality wearing a weave as a hairstyle and this has become a norm within the media industry to have black women appear on the magazine cover without their natural. Although it might be argued that not all women of colure agree to these standards, however, there is still a majority who do little to reject the system. The cover which features the ideal standard of black hair is an extension of the content of the advertisements inside the magazine. And consequently, younger women might know how to deal with their own hair and "will justify it by explaining that they are not trying to conform to a Caucasian beauty standard, but that they find their natural texture too foreign" (Hargo 2001-8). Thus, the magazine does little to include a diverse range of hairstyles that will ultimately allow black to embrace their own natural aesthetic.
In light of all of the information regarding black women struggle for acceptance, it must be known that there are some black women who “are willing to challenge the system” and then simultaneously there are those who choose to remain bystanders of this system (Marco 2012-57).Those who choose to uphold societal perception of beauty turn to a publication that targeted black communities like drum magazine for ways to present themselves. The cover above is an illustration of the continuation of black women attempts of pleasing the societal demands in order to obtain access to certain opportunities and acceptance in their respective community. Marco (2012-69) asserts that “this performance was crucial for stability and docile functioning in an unwaveringly unequal society, mediating the self” is seen a vital tool of surviving socially and financially.
One is constantly interacting with different interpersonal relationships in the society and dealing with such relationships is formed by the context in which it takes place. This is then portrayed through the images that are circulated through the media. Therefore it must be noted that hairstyles play a vital role in how women mediate such relationship, as a way of communicating non-verbal messages that are decoded based on the societal images of beauty that are perceived as normative. All of these interactions within the society are done in a public setting rather than isolation, therefore the practices are regarded as a performance based on demands by the societies which are then communicated in the media as ideal.
It must be noted that there are some black who choose to wear their hair in its natural state and they want to remove the stigma attached to their naturally kinky hair and reclaim their pride. However, drum m does not seem to give them the level of recognition that is on par with wearing a weave or a wig. In the April 2016 figure above, the publication created its own side magazine that talks everything that has to with hair.
The magazine aims to further intensify the power to influence its female readers on what hair they ought to have. The main focal point on the cover is of a woman who is wearing a wig instead of depicting her in a natural state that will include diversity on their covers. It is evitable that drum magazine manages to influence women of colour that the standards of good hair, such as wigs and a weave, are ideal. From slavery, colonization and apartheid, black were subjected to the harsh treatment that their natural brought to them and the legacy of such negative perception is still visible in the young female representation in the present day.
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