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• 1 2019-04-22T18:41:54-07:00 Persuasion 21 Author: Addison Kline plain 2019-05-01T14:16:45-07:00

  Author: Addison Kline
  
  What pops into your mind when you think of persuasion? Advertisements? Product endorsements on Instagram? TV commercials? Or perhaps savvy politicians? Whether  requesting, seducing, enticing, promoting, or manipulating, our minds are exposed to forms of persuasion from television, social media, billboards, educators, friends, and family, to name a few. Our brains are constantly bombarded by stimuli aiming to persuade.

  Persuasion can be a controversial term and have negative connotations. However, there is a positive side to persuasive communication. Friends support each other by encouraging one not to drink and drive and conversations with colleagues offer new perspectives on topics. Activists employ persuasion to campaign for social change such as a shifts in attitudes about race and gender. Consumer activists employ persuasion to boycott products and warn people about dishonest business practices. Consumer health communicators launch several campaigns to change people’s attitudes about cigarettes, alcohol, drugs, and unsafe sex, as well as other unhealthy products (Perfloff, 2017). The list goes on!

  Generally speaking though, whatever involves molding or shaping attitudes involves persuasion (Perloff, 2017). Our attitudes mold our world and perspectives in ways we don’t always realize. “Persuasion is the study of attitudes and how to change them,” writes Perloff (p. 4, 2017). “Persuasion matters, and strikes to the core of our lives as humans beings,” he adds (Perloff, p. 21, 2017).  As human beings, we are social animals, always interacting with one another, while at the same time persuading and being persuaded.

  To fully gain a comprehensive understanding of persuasion and how it is situated within the context of communication studies, let’s turn to a more nuanced definition of  persuasion followed by an explanation of the fundamental components of the keyword. By looking at these components, we will see why persuasion is an important component of the field.

  A main component of persuasion is the persuader’s awareness that they are trying to influence someone. It also requires that the person being persuaded makes a decision, conscious or unconscious, to change their mind or attitude about something. Scholars have defined persuasion in various ways. I offer the following major definitions to consider how the topic is approached. Persuasion, according to communication scholars, is:

  • “An attempt to induce change in an audience's attitudes or behavior. One of the major communicative functions” (Chandler & Mundy, 2011).
  • “A general classification for forms of discourse that aim to influence an audience’s attitudes and/or behavior by appealing to their emotions and/or their reason.” (Chandler & Mundy, 2011).
  • “A symbolic activity whose purpose is to affect the internalization or voluntary acceptance of new cognitive states or patterns of overt behavior through the exchange of messages” (Smith, 1982).
  • “A successful intentional effort at influencing another’s mental state through communication in a circumstance in which the persuadee has some measure of freedom" (O’Keefe, 2016).
  • “A symbolic process in which communicators try to convince other people to change their own attitudes or behaviors regarding an issue through the transmission of a message in an atmosphere of choice” (Perloff, 2017).

  If we condense the main components into one comprehensive definition, we can understand persuasion as a communicative process where the intention is to influence or change the audience’s behavior or attitude.

  Scholars in the field have come to recognize that persuasion has different components. They include:

  • Persuasion is a symbolic process (Perloff 2017).
  • Persuasion involves an attempt to influence (Perloff 2017).
  • People persuade themselves (Perloff 2017).
  • Persuasion involves the transmission of a message (Perloff 2017).
  • Persuasion requires free choice (Perloff 2017).

  Perloff offers a helpful summary of components as well. He writes:

  “The key attributes of persuasion are that it operates as a process, not a product; relies on symbols; involves the communicator’s intent to influence; entails self-persuasion; requires the transmission of a message; and assumes free choice. Of all of these attributes, the one that cuts to the core of persuasion is self-persuasion. In the end, we persuade ourselves. We decide to change our own minds about issues, people, and ideas. Persuaders transmit messages, call on their most attractive features, play word games, and even manipulate verbal cues in hope of convincing us to change our attitudes about an issue” (Perloff, 2017, p. 28).

  Now that we have defined persuasion and several of its components, let’s explore the history of the term.

  Persuasion has existed for centuries. Persuasion can be found in the Old Testament - for example, in Jeremiah’s attempts to convince his people to repent and establish a personal relationship with God. In Ancient Greece, Sophists, meaning traveling educators, charged money for lectures on the art of eloquence and public speaking (Perloff, 2017). Persuasion, also referred to as rhetoric, was thought of as one of the liberal arts in European universities during the middle ages. To be considered an educated man, they must have mastered the art of persuasion. From Imperial Rome through the Reformation, persuasion was considered to be a fine art used by preachers to inspire virtuous behavior or religious pilgrimages (Persuasion, 2019).

  Niccolo Machiavelli, the Italian diplomat, rattled the Renaissance world with his how-to manual for political persuaders entitled The Prince (Perloff, 2017). He provided politicians with suggestions on methods to maintain power through cunning and deception (Perfloff, 2017). Machiavelli shows how persuasion also has political implications and can be a tool for political positions. Persuasion is now understood as a useful tool for power.

  In order to better understand the role of persuasion, it is important to explore what persuasion is not, and differentiate the role of persuasion from related aspects of social influence. Let’s first define social influence. Social influence is a process where a person’s attitudes, opinions, beliefs, or behavior are modified or controlled by social communication (Chandler & Mundy, 2011).  However, persuasion is a form of social influence in which an individual or individuals are intentionally encouraged to adopt ideas, attitudes, or actions by symbolic means. Persuasion, though, is different from coercion, propaganda, and manipulation.

  First, let's consider persuasion and coercion. Perloff states that “Philosophers define coercion as a technique for forcing people to act as the coercer wants them to act - presumably contrary to their preferences. It usually employs a threat of some dire consequence if the actor does not do what the coercer demands or a willingness to do harm to the message receiver” (Perloff, 2017, p. 50). Think of coercion this way, as power over and power to make people act in a way they do not desire. Persuasion appeals to emotions, imagination, and psychology rather than force. Consequently, the importance of distinguishing between persuasion, coercion, propaganda, and manipulation lies in the intent of the person or persons using it. If the persuader is trying to harm, such as degrade an individual’s decision-making or force an individual to act in a way that is contrary to their interests or desires, then the ability to distinguish the difference between these terms is important. Knowing the difference in each of these forms of persuasion via their definitions makes communication and understanding easier. Moreover, the importance in realizing the difference between these communication terms can assist in setting necessary boundaries, whether with friends, relatives, social media or advertising. This important understanding gives you the power to openly listen to an individual or walk away.

  Now that we’ve further clarified how we define persuasion, we can turn to how persuasion is communicated. Dr. Christof Rapp, a professor of Ancient Philosophy and Rhetoric at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, wrote, “Aristotle defines the rhetorician as someone who is always able to see what is persuasive.” Therefore, she continues, “ rhetoric is defined as the ability to see what is possibly persuasive in every given case” (Rapp, 2010).

  Aristotle goes on further to define three technical means of persuasion. Rapp summarizes these three components, writing:

  “The attribute ‘technical’ implies two characteristics: (i) Technical persuasion must rest on a method, and this in turn, is to say that we must know the reason why some things are persuasive and some are not. Further, methodical persuasion must rest on a complete analysis of what it means to be persuasive. (ii) Technical means of persuasion must be provided by the speaker himself, whereas preexisting facts, such as oaths, witnesses, testimonies, etc. are non-technical, since they cannot be prepared by the speaker” (Rapp, 2010).

  Scholars also identify  three components of a speech--the speaker, the subject of the speech, and the audience. Therefore, it follows that there are three ways of technical persuasion.  Technical means of persuasion are either:

  • in the character of the speaker
  • in the emotional state of the hearer
  • in the argument (logos) itself (Rapp, 2010).

  According to Aristotle, there are three modes of persuasion: ethos, pathos, and logos. Ethos concerns the character of the speaker, the speaker’s ability to appear credible. The speaker shows credibility if they display:

  1. practical intelligence (phronesis) 
  2. virtuous character
  3. good character

  Therefore, as Rapp points out, “ if [one] displays all of them, Aristotle concludes, it cannot rationally be doubted that [their] suggestions are credible. It must be stressed that the speaker must accomplish these effects by what he says; it is not necessary that he is actually virtuous: on the contrary, a preexisting good character cannot be part of the technical means of persuasion” (Rapp 2010).
  
  Another important component is pathos, which encompasses the speaker’s emotional influence on the audience. It is important that the speaker have knowledge and understanding of the audience to reduce the audience’s ability to judge. Logos encompasses content and argumentation. Logos appeals to logical reason. The speaker should present an argument or appeal to the audience that appears to be sound. The persuasion is effected through the content of the speech when a truth or apparent truth has been proved by means of a persuasive appeal or argument in question.
  
  Effective persuasion is a difficult, time-consuming proposition; however, it may also be more effective than the command and control persuasion we spoke of previously; i.e., propaganda and manipulation. According to Jay Cogner, “Effective persuasion becomes a negotiating and learning process through which a persuader leads colleagues to a problem’s shared solution” (Cogner 1998).Effective communication involves:

  • Careful preparation
  • proper framing of arguments
  • presentation of vivid supporting evidence
  • effort to find the correct emotional match with your audience (Cogner, 1998).

  The first step to effective persuasion is to establish credibility (Cogner, 1998). “Indeed, people who are known to be honest, steady, and reliable have an edge when going into any persuasion situation” argues Cogner. The second step is to frame your goals in a way that highlights common ground with the persuadee. Thirdly, reinforce your position using vivid language and compelling evidence. And lastly, connect emotionally with your audience (Cogner, 1998).

  Analysis shows that there are steps that lead to a person being persuaded (Persuasion, 2019). First, the communication is presented. The listener pays attention and comprehends its contents. For persuasion to occur, the listener must agree with the point being urged and maintain the new position long enough to act on it.  The goal of persuasion is to change the attitude, behavior, or opinion of an individual or group of people through a communicative process, for example, a person trying a new product, or changing their opinion on an issue.

  Now that we’ve looked at keywords that differ from persuasion, let’s turn to an area where persuasion shares traits with other key arenas: Educational persuasion, Political persuasion, and Advertising/Marketing persuasion. Education and persuasion share commonalities in that informative communication involves the teaching of new information (Persuasion 2019). Because repetition in communication modifies learning, some theorists believe that this has a persuasive impact. The process of learning highlights the main components of the persuasive, communicative process, which emphasizes attention, comprehension, and retention of the message.

  Persuasion is embedded in political communication as well. “By its very nature, politics is a persuasive activity,” argue Gass & Seiter. Whether a lobbyist is trying to nudge congress to support their interests or a senator is trying to get a bill passed, these individuals are persuading others to vote accordingly. As Perloff points out, “Political leaders have relied on persuasion when attempting to influence opinions toward policy issues or when trying to rally the country behind them during national crises. Some of our greatest leaders have been expert persuaders - Abraham Lincoln, Martin Luther King, JR., and Franklin Delano Roosevelt come immediately to mind, as do the crop of current political persuaders, working in the thicket of the social media age” (Perloff, 2017, p. 4).

  Marketing and advertising also by their very nature utilize persuasion. Advertising and marketing would not be advertising and marketing without the fundamental component of persuasion. As Chris Miles states, “Advertising’s place in this new market-control system was to find and adapt every means of persuasion possible to be used in the service of manipulating consumer demand at home and abroad” (Miles, 2013). The goal of advertisements are to persuade the consumer to purchase their product through all types of media - including TV, billboards, magazines, and the internet.

  We have now defined persuasion, examined its history, highlighted differences, and compared other keywords. We have also analyzed Aristotle’s art of persuasion, considered the steps to persuasion, and looked at how persuasion exists within education, politics, and advertising contexts. So, let me conclude by discussing where persuasion is heading in the field of communications. Digital and social media technologies have changed how persuasive messages are conveyed. For example, persuasive messages can be seen by millions of people all over the world on platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter. Attention to these technological shifts offers exciting new avenues for the field and opens up a whole new world of persuasive content.

  
  
  
   

  Works Cited

  Armstrong, J. S. (2010). Persuasive Advertising, Evidence-based principles. New York, New York: Palgrave MacMillan. https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=-czrPbGn6SEC&oi=fnd&pg=PP2&dq=persuasive+advertising&ots=ztRDDziNuM&sig=cjR173d5tdJc5HG1MLdLswRRdKc#v=onepage&q=persuasive%20advertising&f=false
  
  Chandler, D., & Munday, R. (2011). persuasion. In  (Ed.), A Dictionary of Media and Communication. : Oxford University Press,. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199568758.001.0001/acref-9780199568758-e-2025.

  Conger, J. A. (1998). The Necessary Art of Persuasion. Boston, Massachusetts: Harvard Business School.

  Gass, R., & Seiter, J. S. (2016). Persuasion. In S. Schechter, T. S. Vontz, T. A. Birkland, M. A. Graber, & J. J. Patrick (Eds.), American Governance (Vol. 4, pp. 34-36). Farmington Hills, MI: Macmillan Reference USA. Retrieved from http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/CX3629100480/UHIC?u=vic_uor&sid=UHIC&xid=345163c5

  Miles, C. (2013). Persuasion, marketing communication, and the metaphor of magic. European Journal of Marketing, 47(11), 2002-2019. Doi: http://dx.doi.org.newman.richmond.edu:2048/10.1108/EJM-11-2011-0632

  Perloff, R. M. (2003). The Dynamics of Persuasion : Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century (Vol. 2nd ed). Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc. Retrieved from https://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=79449&site=ehost-live
  
  Perloff. R. M. (2017) The Dynamics of Persuasion: Communication and Attitudes in the 21st Century. (2th ed). New York, New York: Routledge.
  
  Persuasion. (2019). In Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from https://academic.eb.com/levels/collegiate/article/persuasion/59360

  Rapp, Christof, "Aristotle's Rhetoric", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Spring 2010 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Retrieved from https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2010/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/.
  
  Seidman, S. A. (2008). Posters, Propaganda, and Persuasion in Electronic Campaigns Around the World and Through History. New York, New York: Peter Lang. Retrieved from https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=iREHODXtO-wC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=persuasion+history&ots=rta5Zi75Le&sig=AD9YtROEdAIF5sC-1y2e2YMJS3k#v=onepage&q=persuasion%20history&f=false