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• 1 2021-05-12T16:38:44-07:00 Exploration of the French Counter-Revolutionary: A Pan-European Issue 25 Jacques Mallet du Pan's Dangers Which Threaten Europe provides powerful context for counter-revolutionary thought during the French Revolution. Additionally, its placement within a circulating library in London sparks discussion on the involvement of all social classes in the development of early modern Europe. plain 2021-06-01T13:53:34-07:00 During the 18th century, a time of intense conflict and imperial development across Europe, ideological differences arose at an unprecedented rate as the world shifted into the modern era. A string of prominent philosophers and political renegades in particular took advantage of newly-minted Enlightenment ideas regarding relationships between government, science, happiness and religion, and perhaps most infamously indirectly led to the triumph of the French Revolution, which took place from 1789-1799 and largely was a culmination of these revelations.
  
  One such figure was Jacques Mallet du Pan, a man who stoked the controversial fires of Royalist sentiment with excessive use of increasingly outdated notions of classism and eventually separated himself entirely from France, denouncing the nation thoroughly. Nonetheless his work, particularly Dangers Which Threaten Europe, explores the opposing viewpoints on European revolutions and the potentially disastrous impact they could have. Du Pan’s sentiments are unique in their associations, as evidenced by, save few, rare occurrences within the larger historical discourse toward the French Revolution. Dangers Which Threaten Europe was able to find an international audience, even becoming part of one of London’s many circulating libraries owned by Robert Sands; here it was able to be annotated and disperse amongst the middle and lower classes, where there may have been any number of insightful and thought-provoking conversations. Taking a look into these non-traditional attitudes toward the conflict and their effects can glean crucial insight that may easily be overlooked.
  
  Indeed, Jacques Mallet du Pan was a controversial figure who had strong opinions on the state of Europe and France in particular. Growing up in Switzerland and eventually moving to London and Paris, du Pan always found himself opposed to the callous revolutionaries that he began to see more frequently. Echoing many of the points made by Reflections on the Revolution in France, his views are best exemplified in Dangers Which Threaten Europe, which provides a lengthy critique of the revolutionary landscape within France, specifically with the problems posed by violent overthrow versus constitutional change and the potential ensuing power vacuum. The book was released and published in 1794, on the heels of the Reign of Terror. The timing of the release, whether intentional or not, was ideal for someone hoping to arouse Royalist support; the French revolutionary cause had just executed upwards of 16,000 citizens deemed ‘counter-revolutionaries’, and conscripted over 750,000 new soldiers, of which many deserted. Additionally, the French Revolutionary Wars were in full swing with the goal of expanding French borders and effectively transforming the political and geographic landscape within western Europe. Many outside of France opposed this attempt to redefine the structures which had existed for centuries, wanting to protect the aristocracies already in place and hold onto monarchical regimes. Du Pan, having already served for Louis XVI, was well-equipped to capitalize on this period of doubt.
  
  Meanwhile, Robert Sands was building up his circulating library in London, likely bringing in as many books as he could for a growing clientele. Although not much is known about Sands or his circulating library, they all followed a similar model and “were put together by book traders whose livelihood depended upon an unprecedentedly wide range of British readers the books they wanted.” (Jacobs 1). Circulating libraries grew in popularity during the 18th century as a result of increasing demand for printed literature, which naturally came at a higher price tag. By creating a borrowing system which allowed lower classes to access books, these libraries presented a great opportunity for education and literacy in the early modern period, notably for female clients. In particular, Sands’ copy of Dangers Which Threaten Europe had been already translated into English, and he had bound it with two other works, A Crying Epistle from Britannia to Colonel Mack and Memoirs of M. Danton. This was no mistake, as both of these other works presented a pro-revolution and anti-monarchical ideology, which rounded out a sufficient amount of literature to educate the common man or woman on the French conflict, the sides it has and the implications on broader Europe. Despite a lack of specific knowledge surrounding this collection, the simple fact that this literature was available to the common folk of London sparks discussion over the impact of the dispersal of political ideas towards the end of the Enlightenment era, and what role the lower socioeconomic classes played in affecting change in the new political and social landscape of an industrializing Europe.
  
  The collection also features annotations that, although trimmed and hard to decipher, provide some insight into the opinions of both Sands and his clientele. Dangers Which Threaten Europe contains much historical background on military events that have taken place throughout Europe, and the author of the annotations in the book - presumably Sands - makes note of several distinctions throughout, particularly pointing out specific numbers as they relate to soldiers, ammunition, etc. The illegible nature of the annotations could imply that these were personal notes of either Sands or a client that wanted to keep note of various points made throughout the work, or they were implanted to correct and provide context for assumptions made so that future clients would not be reading misinformation. Regardless, they give the text life and remind the reader of the engagement present throughout the work.
  
  During this period, Great Britain was undergoing its own changes as it prepared for a transition into the 19th century. The recent creation of Great Britain and the ensuing British Empire, in combination with the Seven Years’ War and the French-backed American Revolution created immense tension between Britain and France. It comes as no surprise then, that Britain was staunchly opposed to the French Revolution. The later Napoleonic Wars provide testament to the ideological divide between the two nations, yet this does not account for the common people. It is because of the accounts of people like Robert Sands and his clients that historians are able to more accurately understand the various viewpoints held by people at different times throughout history. Taking closer looks at local examples such as circulating libraries is a great way to start an all-encompassing analysis of British sentiment towards the French Revolution, and how they felt towards a rapidly changing early modern European society.

  Works Cited

  Macleod, Emma Vincent. 2007. “British Attitudes to the French Revolution.” The Historical Journal 50 (3): 689–709. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20175117.

  Jacobs, Edward. 2003. “Eighteenth-Century British Circulating Libraries and Cultural Book History.” Book History 6: 1–22. https://www.jstor.org/stable/30227340.

  ‌Burke, Edmund. 2006. Reflections on the Revolution in France. New York, NY: Dover Publications.