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• 1 2016-05-07T13:16:01-07:00 Zainab's Background for Final Project 19 plain 281540 2016-05-09T20:39:35-07:00

  Bedouins

  
  Bedouins are "desert dwellers" who consist of several different nomadic tribes. The regions in which they travel within consist of North Africa (Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Sudan, and Tunisia), the Arabian Peninsula (Yemen, Oman, Qatar, Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates), Palestine/Israel, Iraq, Syria, and Jordan. The animal herders migrate to deserts in the rainy winters and go back to cultivated land in the dry summers. Each tribe is classified by the animals they live off of, and their tribal territory is defined accordingly. Bedouin tribes are patriarchal, polygynous, and are made up of extended families that only marry within their tribe. The head of each tribe is called the sheikh, who is assisted by male elders who collectively make up the tribal council. The Noble tribes are considered to be those who are descendants of either the Qaysi (North Arabian) or of the Yamani (South Arabian) ethnic groups. All other tribes live under the Nobles' protection as their servants.
  
  Known to raid trade caravans and villages, Bedouins have also been paid for protecting them. Bedouins have been historically regarded by others with a mix of fear and admiration, for they are seen as dangerous due to their unpredictability (since they do not answer to any other authority other than their own tribal councils usually), yet are seen as bold and  shrewd warriors. The Bedouin identity is hard to pinpoint because their uncertain whereabouts, which make their nationality questionable to governments, the mystery surrounding their traditions and practices, since much of it is passed down orally, and their many different tribes which come with their own distinctive elements.
  
  When modern borders created by newly created national governments were formed in the second half of the 20th century, Bedouin regional territories were not taken into account. The new borders separated previously Bedouins from each other and did decrease internal feuding and raids, but there were many conflicts between the governments, tribal councils, and the tribes themselves, since there was an issue of allegiance. Bedouins were expected to integrate as members of their respective countries, but this did not happen as smoothly as governments had hoped. It was a slow process that has been met with great resistance on the Bedouins' part, and today some have tried to keep most of their heritage alive while also living semi-sedentary lives as members of the military, police, construction industry, and petroleum industry. Historically, Bedouins could not be part of the army (probably since they could not be expected to be loyal to any side during a war, unless given an incentive where it served their interests), were exempt from the corvée (mandatory labor instead of tax) until 1879, and some sheiks were even given a monthly pay. These were some of the few privileges the government gave the Bedouins in exchange for peace by honoring their heritage. In 1882, only sedentary Bedouins were exempt from the corvée, in an attempt to urbanize nomads, though at the same time, Article 5 of the Electoral Law was issued, which instituted representatives of the major Bedouin tribes in the government. Some people pretended to be Bedouins by seeking Bedouin protection, a service they were known to give in exchange for money, in an attempt to gain these privileges. This led to further confusion in identifying Bedouins. They are chosen for these fields mostly because of their ability to live in harsh environments so well. Along with implementing borders, Middle Eastern governments also nationalized Bedouin rangelands, which also contributed to their forced immobility. Those who wanted to use their land now had to pay land or cattle taxes to Egypt. This new lifestyle that was thrust upon gave some of them no other choice but to adopt changes such as joining fixed settlements and trading in their animal transportation for motor vehicles. Today, there are about 75 tribes, from which some Bedouins continue their nomadic lifestyle, while some are semi-sedentary, which has resulted in a lack of representation for them in the national census (which for some reason they are highly suspicious of). It is unclear how many Bedouins there are today, but it has been estimated that they make up only a small percentage of the countries' populations.  

  Traditional Tattoos

  
  Today, only the oldest generation of women show signs of these fading green tattoos. This tradition that has been documented for thousands of years in the Middle East and North Africa has faded amongst Bedouins, Kurds, Berbers, and the Chaouia since the 30s and 40s due to two main reasons. One, is because the adasiya, which are the female traveling gypsy tattooists that usually applied the tattoos, have disappeared mostly from Bedouin regions due to government ousting in the 90s. The second, is that after the speed of Islam and French colonialism, literacy rates went up, causing many Bedouins to realize that Islam prohibits permanent tattoos.
  
  Before, girls were tattooed with small, repeated incisions initially around the time of puberty, because at that time, men desired tattooed women, especially those who were had tattoos on their face. One woman even said that “a woman without tattoos is not a woman,” indicating that tattoos were considered feminine and were associated with womanhood. The tattoos consisted of a number of symbols that were placed on different parts of the body accordingly, but their meanings differ from regions and tribes. Different symbols were used to promote grace, beauty, protection, health, fertility, and qualities of a good wife. These symbols were in the form of animals and nature, elements that reflected the important aspects of Bedouin culture, heritage, and their land. The most common type of tattoo was for made for healing types of pain, since doctors did not exist. In some tribes, healing tattoos were created with a murderer's knife or preferably by the murderer himself. This practice was probably a way for murderers to repent their deeds by easing someone's pain after causing someone else pain. Different type of tattoos could also indicate ethnic, regional, or tribal identities. Men sometimes had tattoos too, but those were solely for healing purposes.
  
  Though their tattooing tradition is soon to be extinct, Bedouins proudly keep their heritage and culture alive by using the same symbols in other forms such as dishes, rugs, textiles, paintings, as well as references to them in songs. 

  The Copts of Egypt

  
  Copts are Egyptian Christians that were evangelized by St. Mark the Apostle in the 1st century. Modern day Copts are the closest descendants of the Ancient Egyptians. Therefore, the word "Copt" originates from the old Egyptian word "Hwt-Ka-Ptah," which means House of the God Ptah. 
  
  MetRemenkimi is the name of the original ancient Egyptian language which was in use until the 17th century. The Coptic language is its evolved version, combined with a Greek influence. Because of the Coptic language, Arabic in Egypt has adopted many Coptic words, making it very different from Arabic dialects in other countries. 
  
  Coptic art reflects their culture of death and resurrection, which stems from their belief in Jesus. It is a visual tale that incorporates their religious and traditional history as well as an embodiment of reinvention, as it has been influenced by a mix of Greek, Roman, Egyptian, and Arab cultures over the years. In this way, their art combines the past, of remnants of ancient empires that Copts have lived under, as well the present, which is committed to their devotion to Christ. Coptic art is a product and documentation of changing societies, religions, and histories in Egypt.
  
  After Egypt was ruled by Babylons, Romans, and Macedonians, in the 4th century, when it was under the Roman Empire, Christianity was adopted as the state religion. Then, everything changed in 645 CE when the Arabs attacked. Amr Ibn Al-‘As expanded the Islamic empire, and slowly Islam became the dominant religion in Egypt.

  Ghawazi Dancers

  
  In Egypt, there has historically been two types of women who were hired to sing and dance for audiences. The 'Awalim were cultured women who were refined in the arts of singing, dancing, poetry, and literature. They were hired by families to educate their upper class daughters, to perform for wealthy harems, and to sing behind a mashrabiyyat (a wooden barrier carved with latticework as a window, which overlooked the main salon of houses) for a mixed audience of men and women. 
  
  The ghawazi were the second group of female entertainers, who performed for lower classes, danced in the streets on special occasions, and performed in front of both men and women accompanied by musicians. The dialect they speak has led people to suggest that they may be of gypsy origin. Since ghawazi dancers exposed themselves performing openly in front of men, they have been seen as prostitutes, and in many cases this is true. There were no institutions created such as brothels for them, but they performed wherever they were hired. Though they have been looked down upon by society, the ghawazi feel great pride in their tribe and call themselves Baramikeh (descendants of the famous family of that name). Surprisingly, after they had started their career, these women were usually married to a man from their tribe. Women were the dominant spouse in these marriages, since the husband would serve her and be used as her procurer to gain clients. These husbands usually worked as their wives' musicians or as blacksmiths and tinkers. Though their tribe was originally nomadic, some ghawazi women settled into houses with black female slaves whom they prostituted for more income. Since they do claim to be Muslim, some ghawazi dancers repent for their lewdness and decide to marry Arab men who are so respectable that even marrying a ghawazi dancer would not tarnish their reputation.
  
  Ironically, though these women are seen as a lowly and indecent class, ghawazi dancers have indiscreetly been a big part of Egyptian culture. Despite their immoral association, they have been hired for religious occasions, including weddings, births, festivals, etc. In the eyes of society and the government, they have been regarded as a unspoken necessary evil. Though their profession was otherwise unregarded and unregulated by the government, they (including all other occupations deemed transgressive, like snake charmers, hashish sellers, and con artists) were taxed until 1882.
  
  In 1834, Egypt's Ottoman Albanian leader Muhammad Ali banned all female dancers and singers to Upper Egypt to rid major Egyptian cities of them. This was probably due to major public opinion that claimed that these dancers were corrupting their cities with their immorality. This concern was so strongly voiced during this time, because European travelers had started coming in and amusing themselves with these dancers. Egyptians disapproved of Muhammad Ali's embrace of modernism, which included the acceptance of the European influx, and this was the idea that the people were truly against. The discontent over his leadership probably made Muhammad Ali ban the dancers in order to appease the public, as well as a concern for the health and discipline of Egyptian institutions. As a result of this ban, the dancing tribes suffered economically, and the distinction between the 'Awalim and Ghawazi dancers was blurred. The grouping of the two as one led to all performing women in non-religious contexts being associated with prostitution. Those who stayed in Lower Egypt, lost the female control that they always had over their prostitution, since they needed men to protect them from the State. In order to fill the vacant occupations, the female performers were replaced with men or boys dressed as women, which included Egyptian khawwal and Turkish/ Jewish/ Armenian gink. When ghawazi dancers were allowed again in 1866 by Khedive Isma'il, a new heavy tax was put on them according to their looks. It is clear that they were allowed to return just so they could be exploited.