Author: Addison Kline

Messages are a fundamental component of the field of communication studies because they are an integral aspect of how we communicate. To fully understand messages, let’s consider the history, etymology, definitions from scholars, explanations of digital and media messages as well as the various components and mediums of messages.

According to the Oxford Dictionary of Media & Communication, 2011, a message is defined as: “Variously, either a text, its content, or its meaning-  referents which literalists tend to conflate." In other words, messages are the transmission of content and meaning.  There are three main elements of communication: the source, the message, and the destination (Civikly, 1974). Therefore, “messages” is a keyword of Rhetoric & Communication studies. The two most common forms of messages are verbal and nonverbal. Verbal messages are messages with words. Nonverbal messages are messages with actions. Most messages contain both verbal and nonverbal communication.

Before we take a closer look, we must examine the history of communication studies and messages. Scholars have been interested in the study of communication as an object of study since at least the time of ancient Greece. In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, writings of philosophers and rhetoricians brought to light the relationship between historical perspectives and the modes of social communication (Simonson et al., 2013)³ . Their readings shed light on the significance of “communication” as a means of understanding the world in which we live. The history of communication contains the eras of oral, handwritten, print, and broadcasting. (Simonson et al., 2013)³.

In 1928, English literary critic and author I.A. Richards stated, “Communication takes place when one mind so acts upon its environment that another mind is influenced, and in that other mind an experience occurs which is like the experience in the first mind, and is caused in part by that experience.”⁴ Richard’s definition highlights the difference between the contents of messages from the process by which these messages are transmitted (Gordon, 2011)⁵. Advances in technology and science have changed how we communicate. The development of newspapers, radio, motion pictures, and TV changed the means in which we exchange messages. Further, these media platforms have increased the new phenomenon of mass communication. Since the 1920s, the growth of communication technologies attracted many specialists who have tried to measure the components and develop methods for analyzing messages (Gordon, 2011)⁵.

Let’s think about messages and forms of address: interpersonal messages, intrapersonal messages, and mass communication messages. Interpersonal messages occur when sending messages to another person. Intrapersonal messages occur when sending messages to yourself.  Mass communication messages occur when sending messages to an audience. There are many ways to send messages. Messages are transmitted through the following forms: written, electronic, digital, verbal, and signals.

According to communications scholar, Brant Burleson, interpersonal communication is defined through a message-centered approach, which is based on the exchange of messages (Burleson, 2010)⁶. Further, that social interaction is based on the process of producing and interpreting messages. In his definition of interpersonal communication, he identifies communication as a social process in which people exchange messages to share meanings and accomplish goals. Burleson defines messages as “sets of behavioral expressions, typically consisting of shared symbols, which are produced in the effort to convey some internal state” (Burleson, 2010)⁶. Symbols provide interpretation during communicative interactions because they have shared meanings within a community. However, it is important that the context of the symbols within the message are interpreted differently by the source and the receiver, which affects the level of shared meaning accomplished through the message.

“A message is more than symbols that compose words and sentences; a message is fundamentally a speech act- the performance of an action through the expression of words and gestures,” he writes (Burleson, 2010)⁶. When relaying a message, the sender performs a set of actions, including illocutionary acts (e.g., declaring, asserting, directing, expressing, or committing), propositional acts (e.g., referring to predicating), and utterance acts (e.g., generating words, sentences, and gestures). The actions performed by the sender are interpreted by the receiver, and during this process, there is a potential for misunderstanding. Misunderstanding can result from the receiver’s confusion about what was said, what was intended, what occurred, what the sender wanted to accomplish, or what the sender’s underlying motivation was for the message (Burleson, 2010)⁶.  The goal of a message is to achieve a shared understanding or meaning. People produce and interpret messages to accomplish particular social goals, which requires the participation of others.

The framework of interpersonal communication within the message-centered approach includes the process of message production, message processing, interaction coordination, and social perception (Burleson, 2010)⁶. Message production is the process of developing behaviors, verbal and nonverbal, which are intended to be transmitted to another to accomplish social goals. Message processing (sometimes called “decoding”) requires the interpretation of the communicative behavior of the other in an attempt to understand the meaning.

Messages can be broken down into four categories of expression: observations, thoughts, feelings, and needs (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ . Observations report what your senses tell you. Observations are simple facts. Observations do not include speculations, inferences, or conclusions. Thoughts are inferences drawn from experiences (what you have heard, read, or observed). Thoughts include a variety of conclusions such as beliefs, opinions, and theories. Sharing feelings are one of the most challenging types of expression. Statements about feelings are not observations, value judgments, or opinions. Needs are straightforward statements where one is not blaming or finding fault. No one knows your needs except you. You are the expert when it comes to what you need (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ .

There are three types of messages; whole messages, partial messages, and contaminated messages (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ . Whole messages are necessary for intimate relationships. One must be able to share their feelings, emotions, and experiences with close friends, significant others, and family in order to connect with and know the “real” person. Whole messages are not required in every relationship or situation. Most messages merely require sharing information (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ . Further, whole messages contain self-awareness, awareness of the other person, and place awareness.

Partial messages occur when leaving something out of a message. Partial messages can lead to confusion and distrust (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ . There are ways that one can check to see whether you are communicating a whole or partial message. Matthew McKay, Martha Davis, and Patrick Fanning in their book Messages: The Communications Skills Book  asks us to consider the following questions:

• Have I expressed what I actually know to be fact? Is it based on what I’ve observed, read or heard?
• Have I expressed and clearly labeled my inferences and conclusions?
• Have I expressed my feelings without blame or judgement?
• Have I shared my needs without blame or judgement?  

Contaminated messages are messages that are mixed or mislabeled. They most often lead to confusion and alienation. Different than partial messages, because nothing is omitted, contaminated messages disguise feelings in a covert form.

To convey effective messages, there must be observations, feelings, and wants as well as the goal to be accomplished as a result of the communication. Awareness of the other person means to analyze the audience receiving the message. When communicating, pay attention to how the listener responds to the message. Place awareness means to consider where the message is delivered. The most effective communication occurs when two people are alone in a comfortable environment (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ . Effective communication requires direct, clear, and straightforward messages. A person’s level of thinking about a message determines the relevance of a message. For example, if someone perceives a message to be highly relevant, they will think about and process the message more thoroughly (McKay et al., 2009)⁷ .

In the field of communication studies, encoding and decoding are main components of understanding messages. Messages require encoding and decoding. The message is encoded by the sender, and decoded by the receiver (Hall et al., 1980)⁸ . Encoding is the process by which the sender encodes the message with the meanings and feelings they wish to transmit to the receiver. Decoding is the process by which the receiver decodes the message to reveal the meanings and feelings sent by the receiver. The meaning of a message depends on the context and social knowledge. The following example demonstrates how social knowledge can change the meaning of a message. At the University of Richmond, students refer to the dining hall as “D-Hall.” When speaking to someone who does not attend the University of Richmond and asking them whether they would like to go to D-Hall, they are likely to be confused. However, in asking another Richmond student if they would like to go to D- Hall, they would know that “D-Hall” means the dining hall.

Built into Stuart Hall’s theory of encoding and decoding are the characteristics and mediums of messages. In Hall’s theory, he highlights the relationship between messages and the audience. Hall’s theory relates to messages through television; however, his theory also relates to messages on a broader level. Hall’s model includes four main components: production, circulation, use, and reproduction (Hall et al., 1980)⁸ . The production is the construction of the message, which includes the beliefs and feelings of the sender. How the message is circulated will alter the way the message is perceived and interpreted by the audience. The use (also referred to as distribution or consumption) requires the audience to be actively engaged in decoding the message. Lastly, the reproduction takes place after the audience decodes the message, how the audience responds to the message, as well as how they choose to communicate the message going forward (Miller, 2003)⁹.

Messages can also be understood in the context of media studies and media theory, which is a part of communication studies. Messages have various linguistic functions. A message includes components such as what is said, the way it is said, the medium used, and the time and manner of delivery. A message involves a flow of content through a channel. Further, the medium used can alter the meaning of a message. Messages can be transmitted through a variety of different mediums including written, digital, social media, technological, and face to face. Media Studies scholar, Marshall McLuhan, argues that “The medium is the message” (McLuhan, 1974)¹⁰.

 The medium used to transmit a message shapes its content. “For the ‘message’ of any medium or technology is the change of scale or pace or pattern that it introduces into human affairs,” McLuhan writes (McLuhan, 1974)¹⁰. The means of persuasion used impacts the way someone receives and interprets a message. McLuhan sees speech as a medium. When a new medium is introduced, this medium changes the way we think about the world. The McLuhan model of communication is based on the principle that media structures the entire environment. Each new medium offers a transmission in the way we think about space, and because of that, the media itself becomes the environment. Media are extensions of man’s senses (McLuhan, 1974)¹⁰.  For example, the medium of text messages has changed the way we send messages. Text messaging allows us to send messages in a simplified form. However, the receiver may not always accurately understand what the sender is trying to convey without being able to hear the tone, see body language, or fully understand the context. Further, because they may not fully understand the message, they may respond to the message in a different way than they would have if this message was a face-to-face communication. Text messaging has changed the way we think about messages, send messages, and respond to messages.

Exploring the various characteristics of messages and mediums allows for better production and interpretation of messages. Considering the history, the various definitions and explanations of media messages as well as unfolding the various components and mediums of messages provides a comprehensive explanation of messages in the field of communications. However, messages are just one component of communication. The landscape of rhetoric and communication studies is rapidly expanding via the intersection of communications and technology, thus creating inherent opportunities and changes. Because of these “plugged-in,” “data-exploding” times, courses dealing with non-traditional courses such as virtual environments, video games with multiplayer online games, international communication networks, and social media networks, as well as the traditional courses pertaining to interpersonal, group, organizational, and mass communication will reside under the same umbrella of communication studies. This technology highway is going to impact and alter the field of communication studies greatly.

Works Cited

Burleson, Brant R. (2010). "The Nature of Interpersonal Communication: A Message-Centered Approach." The Handbook of Communication Science. Charles R. Berger Michael E. Roloff and David R. Roskos-Ewoldsen.2nd ed Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc. 145-164. SAGE Knowledge. doi: 10.4135/9781412982818.n9.

Chandler, D., & Munday, R. (2011). message. In  (Ed.), A Dictionary of Media and Communication. : Oxford University Press,. Retrieved from http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780199568758.001.0001/acref-9780199568758-e-1712.

Civikly, J. (1974). Messages: a reader in human communication. Random House. New York, New York.

Gordon, N.G, (2019). Communication, Encyclopedia Britannica, Encyclopedia Britannica, inc. https://www.britannica.com/topic/communication

Hall, S., Hobson, D., Lowe, A., Willis, P. (1980). Culture, media, language: Working papers in cultural studies, 1972-79. London: Hutchinson.

McKay, M., Davis, M., Fanning, P. (2009). Messages: The Communication Skills Book. Oakland, CA: New Harbinger Publications, Inc.

McLuhan, Marshal. (1974). The Medium is the Message. Understanding Man: The Extensions of Media. McGraw-Hill.  

Miller, T. (2003). Television: Critical Concepts in Media and Cultural Studies. Routledge. New York, New York.

Simonson, P., Peck, J., Craig, FR., Jackson, J. (2013). The Handbook of Communication History. New York, New York: Routledge.